Compositions and methods for modulating interaction between polypeptides

ABSTRACT

The present invention is based, in part, on assays we conducted that revealed compounds that may be used to treat or prevent diseases characterized by an abnormal or undesirable association of one protein with another.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. Ser. No. 13/723,101, filedDec. 20, 2012, which is a continuation of U.S. Ser. No. 11/076,093,filed Mar. 7, 2005, which claims priority to U.S. Prov. No. 60/550,748,filed on Mar. 5, 2004; to U.S. Prov. No. 60/630,252, filed on Nov. 22,2004; to U.S. Prov. No. 60/630,264, filed on Nov. 22, 2004; to U.S.Prov. No. 60/630,231, filed on Nov. 22, 2004; to U.S. Prov. No.60/630,221, filed on Nov. 22, 2004; to U.S. Prov. No. 60/630,262, filedon Nov. 22, 2004; to U.S. Prov. No. 60/630,230, filed on Nov. 22, 2004;and to U.S. Prov. No. 60/633,487, filed on Dec. 6, 2004, each of whichare hereby incorporated by reference in the present application.

TECHNICAL FIELD

This invention relates to compositions and methods for modulating theinteraction between polypeptides. We describe exemplary compounds, whichmay be contained in pharmaceutical compositions, the screening methodsby which they were discovered, and their use as therapeutic orprophylactic agents.

BACKGROUND

At least eight progressive neurodegenerative disorders are caused by anexpansion of the naturally occurring CAG tract that encodes apolyglutamine (polyQ) repeat within the corresponding protein. Thesediseases include Huntington's disease (HD), spinal and bulbar muscularatrophy (SBMA; also known as Kennedy's disease),dentatorubral-pallidoluysian atrophy, spinocerebellar ataxia type 1(SCA1), SCA2, SCA6, SCAT, and Machado-Joseph disease (MJD/SCA3)(Reddy etal., Trends Neurosci. 22:248-255, 1999). With the exception of SCA6(CACNL1A4; Zhuchenko et al., Nature 15:62-69, 1997), which ischaracterized by a minimal repeat expansion, affected individualstypically show a similar range of repeat expansion above ˜35 repeats(Kakizuka et al., Trends Genet. 14:396-402, 1998).

Of the diseases listed above, HD has arguably been studied the mostintensely, and one of the tools extensively used in those studies is atransgenic mouse model. The neurons within mice transgenic for exon 1 ofhuntingtin are marked by intranuclear inclusions that contain huntingtinand ubiquitin (Bates et al., Brain Pathol. 8:699-714, 1998; and Paulsonet al., Am. J. Hum. Genet. 64:339-345, 1999). These inclusions indicatethat protein misfolding and aggregation mediate neuronal pathogenesis(Davies et al., Cell 90:537-548, 1997). Moreover, nuclear inclusionshave been observed in the affected regions of brains of patientsdiagnosed as having a polyQ-associated disease (Kakizuka et al., TrendsGenet. 14:396-402, 1998; DiFiglia et al., Science 277:1990-1993, 1997;Bates et al., Brain Pathol. 8:699-714, 1998; and Paulson et al., Am. J.Hum. Genet. 64:339-345, 1999).

SUMMARY

The present invention is based, in part, on our discovery of compoundsthat can be used to treat or prevent diseases that are believed to becaused by an aberrant association of proteins within a cell. Thecompounds can, for example, be used in the treatment or prevention ofneurological disorders in which polypeptides form aggregates or othercomplexes within cells. The compounds were identified in our screeningassays based on their ability to inhibit or facilitate the associationof one protein with another. While these compounds may mediate theundesirable association that occurs between polypeptides in the courseof certain diseases, whether by modulating that association or anupstream or downstream event, the invention is not limited to compoundsthat exert their effect on the disease process by any particularmechanism. While we tend to use the term “compound(s)”, we may also useterms like “agent(s)” to refer to the molecules described herein.

We have placed each of the compounds we identified into one of fivecategories. The compounds in the first four categories are representedby Formulas I-IV. The compounds in the fifth category are represented byFormulas V(a)-V(u). The invention encompasses these compounds in, forexample, a substantially pure form, as well as various compositionscontaining one or more of them (e.g., pharmaceutical formulations) andmethods of using them.

Formula I is:

In Formula I, X can be C(O) or a bond; each R¹¹ and R¹² can be,independently, halo (e.g., bromo), nitro, amino, hydroxy, alkoxy, alkyl,alkenyl, alkynyl, cyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, arylalkyl, heteroaryl, orheteroarylalkyl, NR¹⁵C(O)R¹⁴, or C(O)NR¹⁵R¹⁶; each of which can beoptionally substituted with 1-4 R¹⁷; R¹³ can be H, alkyl, alkenyl,alkynyl, amino, hydroxy, aryl, arylalkyl, arylamino, heterocyclyl,heterocyclylalkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, cyclyl, cyclylalkyl,aminoalkyl, hydroxyalkyl, or alkoxyalkyl; each of which can beoptionally substituted with 1-4 R¹⁸; R¹⁴ can be H, alkyl, alkenyl,alkynyl, cyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, or heteroaryl; each of R¹⁵ and R¹⁶can be, independently, H, hydroxy, alkoxy, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl,cyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, arylalkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl;each R¹⁷ can be, independently, halo (e.g., bromo), alkyl, alkoxy, orhydroxy; each R¹⁸ can be, independently, halo (e.g., bromo), alkyl,amino, hydroxy, C(O)NR¹⁵R¹⁶, NR¹⁵C(O)R¹⁴, or hydroxyalkyl; and m and nare each, independently, an integer from 0 to 3. The compositions of theinvention can include a compound of Formula I, with the proviso that thecompound is not Scriptaid(6-(1,3-Dioxo-1H,3H-benzo[de]isoquinolin-2-yl)-N-hydroxyhexanamide),which is a histone deacetylase (HDAc) inhibitor; Mitonafide(5-nitro-2-(2-dimethylaminoethyl)-benzo(de)isoquinoline-1,3-dione),which is an intercalating agent; or Amonafide(1H-Benz[de]isoquinoline-1,3(2H)-dione,5-amino-2-[2-(dimethylamino)ethyl]-(9CI), which is also an intercalatingagent. The proviso can extend to5-amino-2-(2-diethylamino-ethyl)-benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione (seeTable 1). The excluded compounds may be encompassed by the inventionwhen newly formulated in a particular manner (e.g., as one of thepharmaceutical formulations set out below) or as part of a kit or aspackaged for storage, shipment, or sale. Of course, their use intreating or preventing a disease characterized by an unwantedassociation of proteins is also new. Specific compounds that conform toFormula I are shown in Table 1.

Formula II is:

In Formula II, Z can be O or S; Y can be O, NR²⁵ or CR²⁶R²⁷; each of R²¹and R²² can be independently halo (e.g., bromo), hydroxy, nitro, cyano,amino, amido, or alkyl; R²³ can be alkyl, cyclyl, aryl, heteroaryl,cyclylalkyl, arylalkyl, or heteroarylalkyl, or can be taken togetherwith R²⁴ and the nitrogen to which it is attached to form a ring whereR²³ is optionally substituted with 1-3 R²⁸. R²⁴ can be H or alkyl, orcan be taken together with R²³ and the nitrogen to which it is attachedto form a ring where R²⁴ is optionally substituted with 1-3 R²⁸; R²⁵ canbe H or alkyl; each of R²⁶ and R²⁷ can be, independently, H or alkyl;each R²⁸ can be independently halo (e.g., bromo), hydroxy, nitro, cyano,amino, amido, or alkyl; and each p and q can be, independently, aninteger from 0-4. Specific compounds that conform to Formula II areshown in Table II.

Formula III is:

In Formula III, A can be N or CR³²; B can be N or CH; R³¹ can be H orNR³³R³⁴; R³¹ can be optionally substituted with 1-3 R³⁵; R³² can be H orNR³³R³⁴; R³² can be optionally substituted with 1-3 R³⁵; R³³ can be H,alkyl, or taken together with R³⁴ and the nitrogen to which it isattached forms a heterocyclyl ring; R³⁴ can be H, alkyl, arylalkyl,heteroarylalkyl, cyclylalkyl, heterocyclylalkyl or taken together withR³³ and the nitrogen to which it is attached to form a heterocyclylring; each R³⁵ can be, independently, halo (e.g., bromo), hydroxy,amino, nitro, alkyl, aryl, arylacyl, arylalkyl, heteroaryl,heteroarylacyl, heteroarylalkyl; cyclylacyl; heterocyclylacyl; oralkylacyl; R³⁵ can be optionally substituted with 1-4 R³⁶; each R³⁶ canbe, independently, halo (e.g., bromo), alkyl, nitro, amino or hydroxy.Specific compounds that conform to Formula III are shown in Table 3.

Formula IV is:

In Formula IV, D can be O, S, or NH; E can be O or NH; R⁴¹ can be halo(e.g., bromo), alkyl, amino, hydroxy, alkoxy; R⁴² can be alkyl,arylalkyl, cyclyl, or cyclylalkyl; R⁴³ can be alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl,aryl, arylalkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, cyclyl, cyclylalkyl,heterocyclyl, or heterocyclylalkyl, where R⁴³ is optionally substitutedwith 1-4 R⁴⁵; R⁴⁴ can be alkyl, cyclyl, cyclylalkyl, aryl, arylalkyl,heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, heterocyclyl, or heterocyclylalkyl, whereR⁴⁴ is optionally substituted with 1-4 R⁴⁶; each R⁴⁵ can beindependently halo (e.g., bromo), alkyl, amino, amido, hydroxy, alkoxy,nitro, cyano, thio, alkylthio, sulfonyl, or sulfonamidyl; and each R⁴⁶can be independently halo (e.g., bromo), alkyl, amino, amido, hydroxy,alkoxy, nitro, cyano, thio, alkylthio, sulfonyl, or sulfonamidyl.Specific compounds that conform to Formula IV are shown in Table 4.

Each of the variables designated by, for example, R, X, Y, m, and n inany of the formulas disclosed herein can be selected independently.While we tend to use the term “compound(s)”, we may also use terms like“agent(s)” to refer to the molecules described herein.

The compounds of Formulas V(a) through V(u) are shown in Table 5.

The invention also encompasses pharmaceutically acceptable salts orsolvates of a compound of any of Formulas I-IV or V(a)-V(u), andprodrugs, metabolites, structural analogs, and other pharmaceuticallyuseful variants thereof. These other variants may be, for example, acomplex containing the compound and a targeting moiety, as describedfurther below, or a detectable marker (e.g., the compound may be joinedto a fluorescent compound or may incorporate a radioactive isotope).When in the form of a prodrug, a compound may be modified in vivo (e.g.,intracellularly) after being administered to a patient or to a cell inculture. The modified compound (i.e., the processed prodrug) may beidentical to a compound described herein and will be biologically activeor have enough activity to be clinically beneficial. The same is true ofa metabolite; a given compound may be modified within a cell and yetretain sufficient biological activity to be clinically useful.

Packaged products (e.g., sterile containers containing one or more ofthe compounds described herein and packaged for storage, shipment, orsale) and kits, including at least one compound of the invention andinstructions for use, are also within the scope of the invention.

In one aspect, the invention features substantially pure preparations ofthe compounds described herein or combinations thereof. A naturallyoccurring compound is substantially pure when it is separated to somedegree from the compound(s) or other entities (e.g., proteins, fats, orminerals) it is associated with in nature. For example, a naturallyoccurring compound described herein is substantially pure when it hasbeen separated from 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%,98%, 99% or more of the compound(s) or other moieties it is associatedwith in nature. While the compounds of the invention may be naturallyoccurring and may be purified using conventional techniques, they mayalso be non-naturally occurring and may be synthesized (naturallyoccurring compounds can be synthesized as well). Compounds prepared bychemical synthesis are substantially pure, as are compounds that havebeen separated from a library of chemical compounds. A substantiallypure compound may be one that is separated from all the other members ofthe compound library or it may be one that has been separated to alimited extent (e.g., it may remain associated with a limited number(e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5-10) of other members of the library). A compoundlibrary is not a pharmaceutical or therapeutic composition.

Regardless of their original source or the manner in which they areobtained, the compounds of the invention can be formulated in accordancewith their use. For example, the compounds can be formulated withincompositions for application to cells in tissue culture or foradministration to a patient. For example, the compounds can be mixedwith a sterile, pharmaceutically acceptable diluent (such as normalsaline). As noted below, and as known in the art, the type of diluentcan vary depending upon the intended route of administration. Theresulting compositions can include additional agents, such aspreservatives. The compounds may also be applied to a surface of adevice (e.g., a catheter) or contained within a pump, patch, or otherdrug delivery device.

Whether in cell culture or in vivo, when proteins associate (either onthe cell surface, within the cell, or following secretion from thecell), they may do so in a variety of ways. When a compound of theinvention interferes with the way one protein would otherwise interactwith another (i.e., the way proteins would associate in the absence ofthe compound), the compound may mediate, for example, aggregation,dimerization, multimerization, accumulation or participation withincomplexes, or any other physiologically significant association betweenproteins.

We may refer to the protein that is affected by the compound as a targetprotein. The target protein may be the protein most directly involvedwith, or associated with, the disease process. For example, the targetprotein can be an Aβ protein found in the plaques associated withAlzheimer's disease, a tau protein within a neurofibrillary tangle, theHuntingtin protein that aggregates in Huntington's disease, or oncogenicproteins such as fos and jun. We may refer to these target proteins asprimary target proteins. Alternatively, the target protein can be aprotein that is active upstream or downstream in a biochemical pathwayin which the primary target protein is active. We may refer to thesetarget proteins as secondary target proteins. For example, the secondarytarget protein can be a transcription factor that facilitates expressionof a gene encoding a primary target protein. The secondary targetprotein could also be a protein whose activity changes upon interactingwith the primary target protein. For example, where the primary targetprotein is an enzyme, the secondary target protein can be that enzyme'ssubstrate. Alternatively, the secondary target protein could be a kinasethat activates the primary target protein by phosphorylating it. Thesescenarios are meant to describe the manner in which the compounds of theinvention may exert their effect on protein-protein interaction within acell, but the invention is not so limited. The invention encompassescompounds according to the formulas described herein, compositionscontaining them (e.g., pharmaceutical formulations), and methods ofusing them regardless of the mechanism by which they work. The targetproteins may contain stretches of consecutive glutamine residues orglutamine-rich regions (e.g., regions containing a sufficient number ofglutamine residues that protein behavior is adversely affected), but thecompounds of the invention may mediate or modulate association betweenother polypeptides as well.

The target proteins, whether primary or secondary, can be identical ornon-identical (e.g., a compound of the invention can facilitate orinhibit the dimerization of proteins in a homodimer or heterodimer ormay facilitate or inhibit the aggregation of one Huntingtin protein toanother). Some of the target proteins affected by the compounds of thepresent invention may contain stretches of consecutive glutamineresidues or glutamine-rich regions, but the invention is not so limited;the compounds of the invention may mediate association between otherproteins (e.g., the secondary target proteins described above) orbetween primary and secondary proteins. The compounds of the inventionmay be useful in the treatment of aggregation-associated diseases byaffecting the disease mechanism in another way (e.g., by facilitatingdegradation of a target protein).

“PolyQ-containing” polypeptides include a number of consecutiveglutamine residues, which may be described in the art as homopolymericpolyQ regions, while “glutamine-rich” polypeptides include other(non-glutamine) amino acid residues interspersed within glutamineresidues. The transcriptional factor CBP, the yeast prion proteins RNQ1and Sup35, Sp1, and the TAFII130 subunit of the transcription factorTFIID are examples of proteins that include glutamine-rich regions.While the number of consecutive glutamine residues may be quite low(e.g., as few as 3-10 (e.g., five)), polyQ-containing polypeptidestypically have about 26 or more consecutive amino acid residues (e.g.,28, 30, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 40, 42, 47, 50, 52, 60, 65, 70, 72, 75, 80,85, 95, 100, 103, 104, 110, 119, 120, 130, 140, 144, 151, 160, 170, 180,190, 191, 195, 200, 210, 230, 250, 270 or 300 consecutive glutamineresidues). For example, a glutamine-rich polypeptide can have at least32 consecutive glutamine residues. Polypeptides having such a region ofconsecutive glutamine residues may also be referred to as having an“extended” polyglutamine region. PolyQ-containing or glutamine-richpolypeptides can be naturally occurring polypeptides such as thehuntingtin protein, atrophin-1, ataxin-1, ataxin-2, ataxin-3, theala-voltage dependent calcium channel, ataxin-7, the androgen receptor,alpha-, beta-, and gamma-synucleins, polypeptides involved inamyloidosis, such as those containing immunoglobulin light chains,amyloid-associated proteins (e.g., alphal-antichymotrypsin,apolipoprotein E (apoE), SP-40, and ubiquitin), mutant transthyretin,beta2 microglobulin, beta2 amyloid protein, and the prion proteins.Other proteins that may be affected by the compounds of the presentinvention include those that form complexes with cellular receptors(e.g., a cell surface or nuclear receptor) or that participate in dimersor multimers (e.g., transcription factors). Accordingly, the inventionfeatures compounds that inhibit the aggregation of (or other undesirableassociation between) any one or more of the aforementioned polypeptides,and methods of treating a subject in which any one of those polypeptidesassociate, or fail to associate, to an extent that cellular function isdisrupted and a disease state results (e.g., a subject havingimmunoglobulin light chain amyloidosis, HD, Parkinson's disease,adult-onset diabetes, cirrhosis, emphysema, or a prion disease, such asCreutzfeldt-Jakob disease). For example, one or more of the compounds ofthe invention may block nuclear aggregation of androgen receptors.Accordingly, the invention features compounds that inhibit theaggregation of (or other undesirable association between) any one of theaforementioned polypeptides and methods of treating a subject in whichany one of those polypeptides associate, or fail to associate, to anextent that cellular function is disrupted and a disease state results.

In addition to determining the effect of a compound on polypeptideassociation (and, in animal models or clinical trials, the effect of acompound on the signs and symptoms of a disease), the assays or screenscan include a step in which one determines cellular toxicity. One canalso generate a dose response profile of putative assay hits and recordthe results in a screening database (which is also within the scope ofthe present invention).

In specific embodiments, the compositions of the present invention canbe administered to a subject having immunoglobulin light chainamyloidosis, HD, Parkinson's disease, adult-onset diabetes, cirrhosis(e.g., cirrhosis of the liver), emphysema, or a prion disease, such asCreutzfeldt-Jakob disease. Other conditions that can be treated orprevented with one or more of the compounds of the present inventioninclude amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, dentatorubral pallidoluysianatrophy, spinal bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA; also known as Kennedy'sdisease), any of the several types of spinocerebellar ataxias (e.g.,SCA1, SCA2, SCA6, SCAT and Machado-Joseph disease (MJD/SCA3)),dentatorubral-pallidoluysian atrophy, and disorders in whichpolyglutamine-containing transcription factors or coactivators areundesirably active (e.g., disorders associated with homodimerization ofjun or hexamerization of p53). For example, a subject may have beendiagnosed as having, or at risk for developing, a carcinoma (e.g.,breast cancer), amyloidosis, a myeloma, kuru, a neuroblastoma, cysticfibrosis, an alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency disease, or a disorder witha similar underlying cellular basis (i.e., an association withundesirable (e.g., excessive or insufficient) protein-proteinaggregation, dimerization, or other interaction).

Therapeutic methods featured in the invention can include the step ofidentifying a subject in need of treatment. The subject can beidentified by, for example, a health care professional (e.g., aphysician) on the basis of subjective or objective information (e.g.,based on comments from the subject, a physical examination, and/or onmeasurable parameters (i.e., diagnostic tests)). Subjects who aretreated with the compounds featured in the invention may have beendiagnosed with any disease characterized by aberrant or undesirableassociation between proteins, whether that association occurs to agreater or lesser extent than is normal (in, e.g., a healthy patient) ordesirable. Alternatively, the subject may be at risk for developingthese disorders. For example, a subject may have a family history or agenetic mutation or element (e.g., an expanded trinucleotide repeat)that contributes to the development of disease. Human subjects, inconsult with their physicians and/or other health care professionals,can decide whether their risk is great enough to undergo preventativecare (as is the case for any prophylactic treatment or procedure). Whilethe subjects of the preventative and/or therapeutic regimes describedherein may be human, the compounds and compositions of the invention canalso be administered to non-human subjects (e.g., domesticated animals(such as a dog or cat), livestock (e.g., a cow, pig, sheep, goat, orhorse), or animals kept in captivity (e.g., any of the large cats,non-human primates, zebra, giraffes, elephants, and the like kept inzoos, parks, or preserves)).

The prophylactic and therapeutic methods can be carried out byadministering to the subject a pharmaceutical composition containing atherapeutically effective amount of one or more of the compoundsdescribed herein. While a single compound may be effective, theinvention is not so limited. A subject can be treated with multiplecompounds, administered simultaneously or sequentially (i.e., before orafter a compound of the present invention). For example, a subject canbe treated with one or more of the compounds described herein and,optionally, a chemotherapeutic agent, an analgesic, a bronchodilator,levodopa or a similar medication, haloperidol, or risperdone. In otherembodiments, the “second” agent can be a vitamin, mineral, nucleic acid(e.g., an antisense oligonucleotide or siRNA), a therapeutic protein(e.g., a peptide), including therapeutic antibodies or antigen-bindingportions thereof, or an anti-inflammatory agent. Compositions containinga compound of the invention and a second agent, as described herein, arealso within the scope of the present invention.

The combination therapy will, of course, depend on the disorder beingtreated. Where a compound of the invention is administered to treat apatient with a cancer, it may be combined with a known chemotherapeuticagent used to treat that type of cancer; where a compound of theinvention is administered to treat a patient with Parkinson's disease,it may be combined with a medication to increase dopamine levels in thebrain; and so forth.

Compounds that mediate association between proteins can also be used todiagnose diseases characterized by protein aggregation (or, as notedabove, other undesirable interaction (e.g., dimerization or complexformation)). These methods can be carried out by providing a biologicalsample from a patient suspected of having a disease associated with anabnormal or undesirable association between proteins; exposing thesample to a compound of the invention; and determining whether thecompound modulates the association of proteins within the sample. Thecompound can be one that is known to interact directly with a primarytarget or one that modulates protein-protein interaction by actingupstream or downstream from the primary target. The compound can also beone that is known to interact with proteins in the context of thesuspected disease. For example, a compound that is known to inhibit theaggregation of Huntingtin can be used to diagnose a patient suspected ofhaving HD. The sample will be exposed to the compound for a time andunder conditions (e.g., physiological conditions of temperature and pH)sufficient to permit the compound to affect proteins within the sample(e.g., Huntingtin, tau, or Aβ proteins within cells within the sample).The diagnostic methods can be carried out before, after, or inconjunction with other diagnostic tests, and their results can informthe subject's treatment regime. For example, where a compound is foundto modulate the aggregation of Huntingtin proteins in a sample obtainedfrom a patient suspected of having HD, that compound may then be used totreat the patient.

With respect to “aggregation associated” diseases, the predominanttheory is that the protein rich aggregates that form within cells aredeleterious. However, a contrary theory holds that aggregation is acellular defense mechanism; harmful proteins aggregate, forming largeinclusions that are targeted by, and slowly degraded by, cellularenzymes. If the latter theory proves true to any extent, compounds thatfacilitate aggregation will be efficacious therapeutic agents. If,instead, the former theory emerges, compounds that inhibitprotein-protein aggregation will be efficacious therapeutic agents. Ineither event, all of the present compounds can be formulated for use incell culture and/or in vivo administration and supplied as reagents forresearch, as described herein. For example, the compounds can be used togenerate cellular or animal models of the diseases described above, andthe cellular or animal models can include a step of determining a doseresponse profile and cellular toxicity.

Compounds that can mediate association between proteins (e.g.,polyglutamine-containing polypeptides) can be identified by thescreening methods of the invention. As noted above, these compounds maymodulate interaction between proteins in different ways; the screeningmethods of the invention are not limited to those that identifycompounds that work by any particular mechanism, nor are the compoundsso limited. In some embodiments, the compounds may bind to polypeptidesprone to aggregate. In other embodiments, the compounds may act astranscriptional repressors or enhancers (in this scenario, a compoundstimulates or inhibits transcription of a gene encoding a polypeptidethat aggregates or that is prone to aberrant aggregation; by virtue of,respectively, increasing or decreasing the amount of the protein withinthe cell, the protein becomes more or less likely to aggregate). Thecompounds of the invention may also (or may alternatively) affectprotein or RNA stability, thereby affecting polypeptide accumulationwithin a cell (more stable RNAs or proteins being more prone toassociate to an undesirable extent). The compounds may also modulate thepost-translational processing of a protein (improperly processedproteins being less prone to associate to an undesirable extent). Forexample, a compound may interact with a kinase, phosphatase, methyltransferase, ubiquitinase, protease (e.g., an aspartyl protease such ascathepsin D or BACE-1 or BACE-2), polymerase (e.g., PARP-1), or othermodifying enzyme. Interruption of post-translational processing eventsmay alter the ability of a protein to aggregate, or may alter thestability of a protein, which in turn may affect the accumulation ofpolypeptide aggregates or other complexes as discussed above. In yetother embodiments, a compound may interact with (e.g., bind to) aprotein that mediates protein folding, such as a chaperone protein(e.g., a stress protein such as a heat shock protein (hsp; e.g., a humanhsp or an hsp expressed within a human cell)). Interaction of thecompound with the chaperone can stabilize, or otherwise modify, itsactivity, thereby modifying protein folding in the cell and the tendencyof proteins to aggregate. Yet other compounds may modulate aggregationby rescuing proteasome dysfunction. Representative compounds are shownin Tables 1-5.

Other features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from theaccompanying drawings and description, and from the claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1A-1C. FIG. 1A is a bar graph showing luciferase expression inSp1-luc/111Q striatum double knock-in cells following treatment withdifferent compounds, as indicated. Fluorescence was measured 24 hoursafter addition of compound. FIG. 1B is a bar graph as described in FIG.1A. Fluorescence was measured 48 hours after addition of compound. FIG.1C is a bar graph as described in FIG. 1A. Fluorescence was measured 72hours after addition of compound.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Small molecule-based therapeutics have provided the means tosuccessfully treat many diseases, and the identification ofpharmacological agents that can reverse, block, or delay disease-linkedprocesses in model systems is critical to the development of effectivetreatments for the diseases described herein. Our assays employ in vitromodel systems that recapitulate key features of disease pathology andthat are adaptable to high throughput screening against a largecollection of chemical compounds.

Using our assays and screens, we have identified compounds we believeare capable of modulating (either directly or indirectly) theassociation of polypeptides including those that, when abnormallyexpressed or associated, cause pathological disorders such asParkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and the other diseasesreferred to herein (we tend to use the term “disease” to refer to anydisorder, unwanted condition, or syndrome). The compounds describedherein can be used to modulate (e.g., inhibit) the aggregation ofpolypeptides, such as polyQ-containing polypeptides that are associatedwith pathological disorders, as well as non-naturally occurringpolypeptides (e.g., polyQ-containing polypeptides that are used indisease models, such as models of HD). Before describing exemplarycompounds, we provide exemplary assays that can be used to test (orfurther test) those compounds as well as to identify other compounds ormoieties, such as proteins (e.g., antibodies) and nucleic acids (e.g.,oligonucleotides or molecules that mediate RNAi (e.g., siRNAs orshRNAs)) useful in the diagnosis, prevention, or treatment of a diseasecharacterized by an abnormal association of one protein with another.

Assays:

A variety of assays are available to identify, test and/or monitor theeffect of a compound or other moiety on protein association (e.g., theaggregation of polyglutamine repeat-containing polypeptides). In oneassay, for example, a cell expresses a fusion protein that contains adetectable label such as a fluorescent or luminescent polypeptide (e.g.,a fusion protein that contains a detectable label and a glutamine-richpolypeptide). The polypeptide can be one that naturally fluoresces or anon-fluorescent polypeptide that is labeled with a tag (e.g., an enzyme,fluorescent, luminescent (e.g., bioluminescent), or otherwise detectabletag). Examples of suitable enzymes include horseradish peroxidase,alkaline phosphatase, β-galactosidase, and acetylcholinesterase;examples of suitable fluorescent materials include umbelliferone,fluorescein, fluorescein isothiocyanate, rhodamine,dichlorotriazinylamine fluorescein, dansyl chloride, phycoerythrin,green fluorescent protein, and blue fluorescent protein; an example of aluminescent material is luminol; examples of bioluminescent materialsinclude luciferase, luciferin, and aequorin; and examples of suitableradioactive materials include ¹²⁵I, ¹³¹I, ³⁵S, ³²P, and ³H. These labelsand tags may be used not only to label substrates useful in the assays,but also to label the compounds identified therein. The coupling of alabel to the aggregation-disposed polypeptide or a compound that affectssuch a peptide can be carried out by chemical methods known in the art.

In an exemplary assay, the cell is exposed to a compound (e.g.,incubated with the compound), and the signal from the detectable labelcan be evaluated. If a fluorescent tag (e.g., GFP, EGFP, BFP, etc. . . .) is used, the fluorescent aggregates can be detected and quantified byfluorescent microscopy. Aggregate-positive cells and the effects ofcompounds on protein aggregation can be detected by any method known inthe art (e.g., using a fluorometer or by fluorescence-activated cellsorting). To facilitate the reading, cells containing aggregates andsoluble fluorescent polypeptides can be incubated for an extended time.Prolonged incubation promotes cellular degradation of solublepolyQ-containing proteins, leaving intact aggregates that are resistantto degradation. Cells typically degrade soluble polypeptides rapidly.For example, PC12 cells usually clear soluble polyQ in about 24 hours,whereas intracellular aggregates are retained much longer. An increasein the intensity of the detectable label (e.g., an increase influorescence) following incubation of the cell with the compoundindicates that the compound promotes interaction (e.g., aggregation)between polypeptides (e.g., glutamine-rich polypeptides). Conversely, adecrease in the intensity of the detectable label indicates that thecompound inhibits protein interaction.

A detectable label can be a label detected by indirect methods, as by anantibody detection assay. For example, the aggregation-disposed proteincan be fused to an N-terminal amino acid sequence consisting of 5-35(e.g., 5, 8, 10, 12, 15, 18, 20, 23, 27, 29, 31, or 35) amino acidresidues from any existing protein or of any random sequence. TheN-terminal amino acid sequence can also be the FLAG-tag sequence(MYKDDDDK (SEQ ID NO:1)). Alternatively, the tag can be a histidine(His) tag, influenza hemagglutinin (HA) tag, Myc tag, VSV-G tag, orthioredoxin (Trx) tag. Other detectable protein fusion tags includebeta-galactosidase, beta-glucuronidase, glutathione-S-transferase (GST),luciferase, horseradish peroxidase (HRP) and chloramphenicolacetyltransferase (CAT). When a non-fluorescent tag is used, associationof aggregation-disposed polypeptides can be assessed by exposing thecell to antibodies that specifically bind the non-fluorescentpolypeptide. Of course, the antibodies that specifically bind thenon-fluorescent polypeptide can be fluorescently labeled. In any event,while fluorescence can be measured with a device, such as a fluorimeter,it is also possible to detect changes in fluorescence by viewing alabeled cell directly under the microscope. Changes in the size ofprotein aggregates can be readily apparent to the eye and can bedetected by automated systems.

To most accurately assess a compound, the signal generated by thedetectable label (e.g., fluorescent polypeptide) can be assessed justafter the cell has been exposed to the compound (i.e., before anysignificant incubation has occurred) as well as after the period ofincubation. When the method is carried out in this way, the firstreading will more accurately reflect the background signal intensity bytaking into account any fluorescence emitted by the compound per se. Ofcourse, less accurate measurements can be obtained in other ways (e.g.,by assessing background signal before the compound is added to thecell). In this method, as well as the others described herein, thecompound can be virtually any substance (e.g., the compound can be abiological molecule, such as a polypeptide expressed in the cell, achemical compound, or a small molecule). Libraries that encode orcontain candidate compounds are available to those of ordinary skill inthe art through charitable sources (e.g., ChemBridge Corporation (SanDiego, Calif.) (which provides useful information about chemicallibraries on the worldwide web)) and commercial suppliers.

The cells that can be used in the methods and assays described hereincan be mammalian cells (e.g., the cell of a rodent, non-human primate,or human) or yeast cells (of any strain). Regardless of the cell typeused, the recombinant proteins (e.g., fusion proteins) they express canbe placed under the control of an inducible promoter. Many usefulinducible promoters are known in the art. For example, in the eventyeast cells are employed, the fusion protein can be placed under thecontrol of a Gall promoter.

In one assay, a compound that modulates (e.g., inhibits or promotes) theinteraction (e.g., aggregation) of polypeptides, such as glutamine-richpolypeptides, can be identified by obtaining a cell that expresses afusion protein that includes the polypeptide (e.g., a glutamine-richpolypeptide, whether naturally or non-naturally occurring), exposing thecell to the compound, and assessing the growth rate of the cell. Anincrease in the growth rate of the cell can indicate that the compoundfavorably modulates (e.g., inhibits) the interaction of thepolypeptides. Conversely, suppression of growth can indicate that thecompound stimulates or promotes the interaction of the polypeptides andthat interaction is deleterious to the cell. The significance of theresults may differ depending upon the disease model (e.g., a model ofcancer; or an assay conducted with tumor cells in culture or in vivo).The polypeptides whose aggregation is in question can be identical toone another or they may differ from one another.

Assays can be used to identify a gene product that mediates interactionof aggregation-disposed polypeptides or other target proteins (i.e., agene product that, possibly in concert with other gene products,functions to either promote or inhibit the association of polypeptides,including glutamine-rich polypeptides). Gene products, which serve astargets for therapeutic agents, can be identified in assays in whichfluorescence, cell growth, or both, are assessed. For example, a geneproduct that mediates the interaction between aggregation-disposedpolypeptides can be identified by obtaining a mutant yeast cell thatexpresses an aggregation-disposed polypeptide and assessing the rate ofgrowth of the cell. An increase in the rate of growth, relative to thatof a wild type yeast cell that expresses the aggregation-disposedpolypeptide indicates that the gene product that is mutant in the yeastcell is a gene product that mediates aggregation of theaggregation-disposed polypeptides. Alternatively, where afluorescence-based assay is used, a gene product that mediatesinteraction of aggregation-disposed polypeptides can be identified byobtaining a mutant yeast cell that expresses fusion protein thatincludes an aggregation-disposed polypeptide and a fluorescentpolypeptide, exposing the cell to the compound, incubating the cell withthe compound, and assessing the fluorescence emitted by the fluorescentpolypeptide. A decrease in fluorescence, relative to that of a wild typeyeast cell that expresses the aggregation-disposed polypeptide,indicates that the gene product that is mutant in the yeast cell is agene product that mediates aggregation of glutamine-rich polypeptides.

Another method that can be used to identify a target for a therapeuticagent is carried out by obtaining cells that express a fusion proteinthat includes a polypeptide (e.g., a polypeptide prone to aggregation(e.g., a glutamine-rich polypeptide, perhaps in the context of a diseaseprocess) or other target protein), transfecting the cells with anexpression library of mammalian genes, and assessing the growth of thecells. An alteration in the growth of a cell (among those transfectedand relative to non-transfected cells) indicates that that cell has beentransfected with a mammalian gene that mediates aggregation of thepolypeptide (e.g., the glutamine-rich polypeptide). Therefore, the gene,or the gene's product, is a target for a therapeutic agent that mediatesthe aggregation of glutamine-rich polypeptides. Here again, the methodcan be fluorescence-based, in which case the cell would express a fusionprotein that includes a glutamine-rich polypeptide and a fluorescentpolypeptide, and fluorescent emission, rather than cell growth, would beassessed.

Cultured cells, whether labeled or exposed to a detectably-labeledcompound or not, can also be used to carry out toxicity studies of thecompounds described herein and others (e.g., others identified by theassays of the invention). Using such studies, we determined that none ofcompounds C1-C8 are cytotoxic. Compounds that undesirably blockinteractions between proteins (e.g., transcription factors) are verylikely to affect cell viability.

For use in the screening methods, both naturally occurring andnon-naturally occurring aggregation-disposed polypeptides can beproduced recombinantly. Recombinant methods can be used to fuse otherproteins (e.g., heterologous proteins) to the aggregation-disposedpolypeptides. For example, a glutamine-rich polypeptide such ashuntingtin, can be fused to an antigenic tag, such as c-myc or FLAG-tag,or a proteinaceous label such as a green fluorescent protein (GFP, whichterm includes enhanced GFP, or “EGFP”). Such fusion proteins, nucleicacid sequences encoding them, and expression vectors useful in mediatingexpression are also within the scope of the present invention. The cellin which the recombinant polypeptide is produced can be used directly inthe methods of the invention, or the recombinant polypeptide can bepurified from the culture medium or from a lysate of the cells. Cellsthat include an association-disposed polypeptide and, optionally, acompound disclosed herein (e.g., a compound of any of Tables 1-5 or asalt, solvate, biologically active variant or other analog thereof) arewithin the scope of the present invention, as are arrays of such cells.

Variants of the aggregation-disposed polypeptides can also be targets ofthe compounds of the invention, or used in the assays described herein.Variants can be prepared by substituting selected amino acid residues inthe polypeptides. A variant of an aggregation-disposed polypeptideincludes a polypeptide that has high sequence identity (e.g., 60, 70,80, 90, 95, 96, 97, 98, or 99%) to an aggregation-disposed polypeptideand retains the ability to aggregate.

Isolated nucleic acid molecules that encode naturally occurring,aggregation-disposed polypeptides, variants thereof, or non-naturallyoccurring aggregation-disposed polypeptides are useful in the methods ofthe invention and in the assays described herein. Naturally occurringnucleic acid sequences that encode aggregation-disposed polypeptides arewell known in the art and can be obtained, for example, from GENBANK™.The nucleic acid triplet that encodes the amino acid glutamine can beeither CAA or CAG. The CAA or CAG codons need not be present in equalnumbers and need not form a repeating pattern.

Typically, expressing an aggregation-disposed polypeptide in a cellinvolves inserting an aggregation-disposed polypeptide coding sequenceinto a vector, where it is operably linked to one or more expressioncontrol sequences. The need for, and identity of, expression controlsequences will vary according to the type of cell in which theaggregation-disposed polypeptide sequence is to be expressed. Examplesof expression control sequences include transcriptional promoters,enhancers, suitable mRNA ribosomal binding sites, and sequences thatterminate transcription and translation.

Suitable expression control sequences can be selected by one of ordinaryskill in the art. Standard methods can be used by the skilled person toconstruct expression vectors. See, generally, Sambrook et al., 1989,Cloning—A Laboratory Manual (2^(nd) Ed), Cold Spring Harbor LaboratoryPress, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.

Useful vectors include plasmid vectors and viral vectors. Viral vectorscan be, for example, those derived from retroviruses, adenoviruses,adeno-associated virus, SV40 virus, pox viruses, or herpes viruses. Onceintroduced into a host cell (e.g., a bacterial cell, a yeast cell, aninsect cell, an avian cell, or a mammalian cell), the vector can remainepisomal, or be incorporated into the genome of the host cell. Usefulvectors include vectors that can be purchased commercially, e.g., pcDNA3.1-based vectors can be purchased from Invitrogen (Carlsbad, Calif.).

Compounds:

Using assays such as those described above, we have identified certaincompounds, which are categorized according to one of Formulas I-IV orone of Formulas V(a)-V(u). The invention encompasses these compounds in,for example, a substantially pure form, as well as various compositionscontaining one or more of them (e.g., pharmaceutical formulations,packaged products, and kits) and methods of using them.

Compounds that can be used in practicing the invention, having thegeneral formula of Formula I can contain abenzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione or 1H-benzo[cd]indol-2-one core. Thecore can be substituted, for example at the nitrogen, or on one or bothof the phenyl moieties.

Any ring carbon atom can be substituted, for example with one or more R¹and R² as defined above. For example, R¹ and R² can include, withoutlimitation, halo, nitro, amino, hydroxy, alkoxy, alkyl, alkenyl,alkynyl, cyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, arylalkyl, heteroaryl,heteroarylalkyl, or amido, each of which can be further substituted withsubstituents. Examples of substituents include, but are not limited tohalo, alkyl, alkoxy, or hydroxy.

The nitrogen is bound to R³. Examples of R³ include, but are not limitedto H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amino, hydroxy, aryl, arylalkyl,arylamino, heterocyclyl, heterocyclylalkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl,cyclyl, cyclylalkyl, aminoalkyl, hydroxyalkyl, or alkoxyalkyl each ofwhich can be further substituted with substituents. Examples ofsubstituents include, but are not limited to halo, alkyl, amino,hydroxy, amido, or hydroxyalkyl.

In specific embodiments, the invention features a purified orsubstantially pure compound of Formula I and compositions comprisingsuch compounds (e.g., pharmaceutical or physiologically acceptablecompositions). Referring to Formula I, X can be C(O) or a bond; each R¹and R² can be, independently halo, nitro, amino, hydroxy, alkoxy, alkyl,alkenyl, alkynyl, cyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, arylalkyl, heteroaryl, orheteroarylalkyl, NR⁵C(O)R⁴, or C(O)NR⁵R⁶; each of which can beoptionally substituted with 1-4 R⁷; R³ can be H, alkyl, alkenyl,alkynyl, amino, hydroxy, aryl, arylalkyl, arylamino, heterocyclyl,heterocyclylalkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, cyclyl, cyclylalkyl,aminoalkyl, hydroxyalkyl, or alkoxyalkyl; each of which can beoptionally substituted with 1-4 R⁸; R⁴ can be H, alkyl, alkenyl,alkynyl, cyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, or heteroaryl; each R⁵ and R⁶ canbe, independently, H, hydroxy, alkoxy, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cyclyl,heterocyclyl, aryl, arylalkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; each R⁷can be, independently, halo, alkyl, alkoxy, or hydroxy; each R⁸ can be,independently, halo, alkyl, amino, hydroxy, C(O)NR⁵R⁶, NR⁵C(O)R⁴, orhydroxyalkyl; and m and n can each be, independently, an integer from 0to 3. In specific embodiments, R¹ can be heterocylcyl (e.g., in thisembodiment and others, R¹ can be a nitrogen-containing heterocyclyl),nitro or amino; m can be 1; and n can be 0. In other embodiments, R¹ canbe morpholinyl, piperidinyl, or piperazinyl. Each R¹ and R² can be,independently halo, and each of m and n can be, independently, 1. Eitheror both of R¹ and R² can be chloro. Either or both of m and n can be 0.

R³ can be H, alkyl, amino, aryl, arylamino, arylalkyl, heterocyclylalkyl(e.g., morpholinyl, piperidinyl or piperazinyl that includes a C₂-C₄alkyl) aminoalkyl, hydroxyalkyl, or alkoxyalkyl. When R³ is anaminoalkyl, it can be optionally substituted with alkyl, hydroxyalkyl orC(O)NR⁵R⁶.

In specific embodiments, X is C(O); R¹ is heterocylcyl (e.g., anitrogen-containing heterocyclyl), nitro or amino; R³ is alkyl, amino,aryl, arylamino, arylalkyl, heterocyclylalkyl, aminoalkyl, hydroxyalkyl,or alkoxyalkyl; m is 1; and n is 0. More specifically, R¹ can bemorpholinyl, piperidinyl, or piperazinyl. Where R³ is aminoalkyl, it canbe optionally substituted with hydroxyalkyl or C(O)NR⁵R⁶.

In another embodiment, X is C(O); R¹ and R² are each independently halo;R³ is alkyl, amino, aryl, arylamino, arylalkyl, heterocyclylalkyl,aminoalkyl, hydroxyalkyl, or alkoxyalkyl; and m and n are eachindependently 1. For example, R³ can be heterocyclylalkyl or aminoalkyl,and where R³ is aminoalkyl, it can be optionally substituted withhydroxyalkyl or C(O)NR⁵R⁶.

In another embodiment, X is C(O); R³ is alkyl, amino, aryl, arylamino,arylalkyl, heterocyclylalkyl, aminoalkyl, hydroxyalkyl, or alkoxyalkyl;and m and n are each independently 0. For example, R³ can beheterocyclylalkyl or aminoalkyl, and where R³ is aminoalkyl, it can beoptionally substituted with alkyl, hydroxyalkyl or C(O)NR⁵R⁶. In this orother embodiments, where an R group (e.g., R³) is heterocyclylalkyl, theheterocyclylalkyl can include a heterocyclyl of morpholinyl, piperidinyland piperazinyl, and the heterocyclylalkyl can include a C₂-C₄ alkyl.

In another embodiment, X is a bond, and R³ is H or alkyl. R² can beamino, nitro, or NR⁵C(O)R⁴, and n can be 1. Alternatively, m and n canbe 0.

The compounds and compositions of the invention can be, or can include:2-Phenylamino-benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione;2-Benzyl-6-morpholin-4-yl-benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione;6-(4-Methyl-piperazin-1-yl)-2-phenyl-benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione;2-(2-Morpholin-4-yl-ethyl)-benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione;6-(1,3-Dioxo-1H,3H-benzo[de]isoquinolin-2-yl)-hexanoic acidhydroxyamide;2-[3-(Hydroxymethyl-amino)-propyl]-benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione;2-[2-(Hydroxymethyl-amino)-ethyl]-benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione;2-(3-Methoxy-propyl)-benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione;2-(3-Dimethylamino-propyl)-benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione;2-(3-Morpholin-4-yl-propyl)-benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione;2-(2-Piperidin-4-yl-ethyl)-benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione;2-(3-Piperidin-1-yl-propyl)-benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione;2-Dimethylamino-benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione;2-(2-Dimethylamino-ethyl)-benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione;2-(3-Methyl-butyl)-benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione;6,7-Dichloro-2-(2-dimethylamino-ethyl)-benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione;2-(2-Piperidin-1-yl-ethyl)-benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione;2-(2-Piperazin-1-yl-ethyl)-benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione;2-(2-Morpholin-4-yl-ethyl)-benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione;2-(2-Diethylamino-ethyl)-benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione;6-Amino-1H-benzo[cd]indol-2-one; 1-Ethyl-1H-benzo[cd]indol-2-one;6-Amino-1-ethyl-1H-benzo[cd]indol-2-one;N-(1-Ethyl-2-oxo-1,2-dihydro-benzo[cd]indol-6-yl)-acetamide;N-Ethyl-2-(2-oxo-2H-benzo[cd]indol-1-yl)-acetamide;2-Butyl-benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione;2-(2-Methoxy-ethyl)-benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione;2-Hydroxymethyl-6-piperidin-1-yl-benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione;6-(4-Methyl-piperazin-1-yl)-2-phenyl-benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione;and/or2-[3-(Hydroxymethyl-amino)-propyl]-benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione. Forexample, the compounds and compositions of the invention can be, or caninclude a compound shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1 GI

Formula I A1

2-Phenylamino- benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione A2 aka C7 aka C4

2-Benzyl-6-morpholin-4-yl- benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione A3 aka C4-34

6-(4-Methyl-piperazin-1-yl)-2- phenyl-benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3- dioneA4

2-(2-Morpholin-4-yl-ethyl)- benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione A5 Scriptaid

6-(1,3-Dioxo-1H,3H- benzo[de]isoquinolin-2-yl)- hexanoic acidhydroxyamide A6

2-[3-(Hydroxymethyl-amino)- propyl]-benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3- dione A7aka C9-3

2-[2-(Hydroxymethyl-amino)- ethyl]-benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3- dione A8aka C9-2

2-(3-Methoxy-propyl)- benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione A9 aka C9-1 akaC91

2-(3-Dimethylamino-propyl)- benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione A10

2-(3-Morpholin-4-yl-propyl)- benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione A11 akaC9-7

2-(2-Piperidin-4-yl-ethyl)- benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione A12 akaC9-4A

2-(3-Piperidin-1-yl-propyl)- benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione A13

2-Dimethylamino- benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione A14 aka C9-1B

2-(2-Dimethylamino-ethyl)- benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione A15 aka C9-1A

2-(3-Methyl-butyl)- benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione A16 aka C9-1 aka C1

6,7-Dichloro-2-(2-dimethylamino- ethyl)-benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3- dioneA17

2-(2-Dimethylamino-ethyl)-5-nitro- benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione A18

5-Amino-2-(2-dimethylamino- ethyl)-benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3- dione A19aka C9-4

2-(2-Piperidin-1-yl-ethyl)- benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione A20 aka C9-5

2-(2-Piperazin-1-yl-ethyl)- benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione A21

2-(2-Morpholin-4-yl-ethyl)- benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione A22 aka C96C

5-Amino-2-(2-diethylamino-ethyl)- benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione A23aka C9-6B

2-(2-Diethylamino-ethyl)- benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione A24

6-Amino-1H-benzo[cd]indol-2-one A25

1-Ethyl-1H-benzo[cd]indol-2-one A26

6-Amino-1-ethyl-1H- benzo[cd]indol-2-one A27 aka CG4

N-(1-Ethyl-2-oxo-1,2-dihydro- benzo[cd]indol-6-yl)-acetamide A28

N-Ethyl-2-(2-oxo-2H- benzo[cd]indol-1-yl)-acetamide A29

2-Butyl-benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3- dione A30

2-(2-Methoxy-ethyl)- benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione A31 aka C4-7

2-Hydroxymethyl-6-piperidin-1-yl- benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3-dione A33aka C9 aka C4-DAK

2-[3-(Hydroxymethyl-amino)- propyl]-benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3- dione A34

A35

N-(1-ethyl-2-oxo-1,2- dihydrobenzo[cd]indol-7- yl)acetamide

While pharmaceutical formulations are described further below, we notehere, that the compounds of the invention, including those justdescribed, can be formulated for oral or parenteral administration to apatient. Likewise, while methods are described further elsewhere herein,we note that the invention encompasses methods of treating a subject whohas, who has been diagnosed as having, or who is at risk of developing,a disorder characterized by an undesirable association of proteins. Themethods can include the step of identifying the subject (or patient) andadministering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of apharmaceutical composition that includes any of the compounds describedherein (e.g., a compound conforming to Formula I). The subject may havebeen diagnosed as having, or at risk of developing, Huntington'sdisease, Parkinson's disease, spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy,dentatorubral-pallidoluysian atrophy, spinocerebellar ataxia type 1(SCA1), SCA2, SCA6, SCAT, Machado-Joseph disease (MJD/SCA3), a carcinomaassociated with oncoprotein association (e.g., dimerization) (e.g.,breast cancer), amyloidosis, myeloma, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, kuru,cystic fibrosis, neuroblastoma, or alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiencydisease.

With respect to C9, which conforms to Formula I, our initial studiesrevealed that this compound increases protein-protein aggregation (asdescribed further below, C9 facilitated aggregation ofpolyglutamine-containing proteins in a cell-free membrane-trapping assayand in neurons in cultured brain slices at concentrations higher than 10μM). Based on this information, we readily identified two compounds thatare variants of C9 that also facilitate protein-protein aggregation(C9-1 and C9-2, shown below). Accordingly, C9, C9-1 and C9-2 are withinthe scope of the present invention and can be formulated inpharmaceutically or physiologically acceptable compositions and appliedto cells to, we believe, facilitate association between polypeptides.Our present results lead us to conclude that C9 interferes withtranscriptional machinery, possibly by intercalating into the DNA'sdouble helix and forming high affinity hydrogen bonds with GC richmotifs.

In Formula II, Z can be O or S; Y can be O, NR²⁵ or CR²⁶R²⁷; each of R²¹and R²² can be independently halo (e.g., bromo), hydroxy, nitro, cyano,amino, amido, or alkyl; R²³ can be alkyl, cyclyl, aryl, heteroaryl,cyclylalkyl, arylalkyl, or heteroarylalkyl, or can be taken togetherwith R²⁴ and the nitrogen to which it is attached to form a ring whereR²³ is optionally substituted with 1-3 R²⁸. R²⁴ can be H or alkyl, orcan be taken together with R²³ and the nitrogen to which it is attachedto form a ring where R²⁴ is optionally substituted with 1-3 R²⁸; R²⁵ canbe H or alkyl; each of R²⁶ and R²⁷ can be, independently, H or alkyl;each R²⁸ can be independently halo (e.g., bromo), hydroxy, nitro, cyano,amino, amido, or alkyl; and each p and q can be, independently, aninteger from 0-4. Specific compounds that conform to Formula II areshown in Table 2.

In specific embodiments, the invention features a purified orsubstantially pure compound of Formula II and compositions comprisingsuch compounds (e.g., pharmaceutical or physiologically acceptablecompositions). Referring to Formula II, Z can be O or S; Y can O, NR²⁵or CR²⁶R²⁷; each of R²¹ and R²² can be, independently, halo, hydroxy,nitro, cyano, amino, amido, or alkyl; R²³ can be alkyl, cyclyl, aryl,heteroaryl, cyclylalkyl, arylalkyl, or heteroarylalkyl, or when takentogether with R²⁴ and the nitrogen to which it is attached can form aring. For example, R²³ can optionally be substituted with 1-3 R²⁸. R²⁴can be H, alkyl, or when taken together with R²³ and the nitrogen towhich it is attached can form a ring. For example, R²⁴ can be optionallysubstituted with 1-3 R²⁸. R²⁵ can be H or alkyl; each of R²⁶ and R²⁷ canbe, independently, H or alkyl; each R²⁸ can be, independently, halo,hydroxy, nitro, cyano, amino, amido, or alkyl; each p can be an integerfrom 0-5, inclusive; and each q can be, independent of p, an integerfrom 0-4, inclusive (i.e., 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4).

In specific embodiments, Z is O, and Y is NR²⁵. In this embodiment andothers, R²⁵ can be H. Alternatively, Y can be CR²⁶R²⁷. Each R²¹ and R²²can be independently halo or hydroxy. In some embodiments, R²¹ is haloand p is 1. In that instance, q can be, for example, 0. In connectionwith Formula II or any other of the formulas presented herein, thehalogen can be any radical of fluorine, chlorine, bromine or iodine.Thus, in specific embodiments, R²² can be halo (e.g., bromo) and q canbe 1. In that instance, p can be, for example, 0. In some embodiments, pand q are 0.

R²³ can be cyclyl or aryl, and the aryl can be substituted with bromo.R²⁴ can be H or alkyl, and R²³ and R²⁴, taken together with the nitrogento which they are attached, can form a ring.

In another embodiment, Z is O; Y is NR²⁵; each of R²¹ and R²² are,independently, halo (e.g., bromo), hydroxy or alkyl; R²³ is cyclyl oraryl; R²⁴ is H or alkyl; and each p and q is 0 or 1.

In another embodiment, Z is O; Y is CR²⁶R²⁷; each R²¹ and R²² isindependently halo (e.g., bromo, chloro, fluoro, or iodo), hydroxy, oralkyl; R²³ and R²⁴, taken together with the nitrogen to which they areattached, can form a ring; and each p and q is 0 or 1. For example, R²¹can be hydroxy, p can be 1, and q can be 0.

The compounds and compositions of the invention can be, or can include:4-Bromo-N-(4-bromo-phenyl)-3-cyclohexylsulfamoyl-benzamide;N-(4-Bromo-phenyl)-3-(4-bromo-phenylsulfamoyl)-benzamide;3-(4-Bromo-phenylsulfamoyl)-N-phenyl-benzamide;4-Bromo-3-cyclohexylsulfamoyl-N-phenyl-benzamide;N-(4-Bromo-phenyl)-3-cyclohexylsulfamoyl-benzamide; and/or1-[3-(Azepane-1-sulfonyl)-2-bromo-phenyl]-2-(3-hydroxy-phenyl)-ethanone.For example, the compounds and compositions of the invention can be, orcan include a compound shown in Table 2.

TABLE 2 GII

Formula II B1

4-Bromo-N-(4-bromo-phenyl)-3- cyclohexylsulfamoyl-benzamide B2 aka C2-8aka C8

N-(4-Bromo-phenyl)-3-(4-bromo- phenylsulfamoyl)-benzamide B3

3-(4-Bromo-phenylsulfamoyl)-N- phenyl-benzamide B4

4-Bromo-3-cyclohexylsulfamoyl- N-phenyl-benzamide B5

N-(4-Bromo-phenyl)-3- cyclohexylsulfamoyl-benzamide B6 aka C2-10

1-[3-(Azepane-1-sulfonyl)-2- bromo-phenyl]-2-(3-hydroxy-phenyl)-ethanone B7 aka C2-11

3-(N-(4- methoxyphenyl)sulfamoyl)-4- methyl-N-o-tolylbenzamide B8

3-(azepan-1-ylsulfonyl)-N-(3- hydroxyphenyl)-4- methylbenzamide B9

5-(azepan-1-ylsulfonyl)-2-chloro- N-(3-hydroxyphenyl)benzamide

While pharmaceutical formulations are described further below, we notehere, that the compounds of the invention, including those justdescribed, can be formulated for oral or parenteral administration to apatient. Likewise, while methods are described further elsewhere herein,we note that the invention encompasses methods of treating a subject whohas, who has been diagnosed as having, or who is at risk of developing,a disorder characterized by an undesirable association of proteins. Themethods can include the step of identifying the subject (or patient) andadministering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of apharmaceutical composition that includes any of the compounds describedherein (e.g., a compound conforming to Formula II). The subject may havebeen diagnosed as having, or at risk of developing, Huntington'sdisease, Parkinson's disease, spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy,dentatorubral-pallidoluysian atrophy, spinocerebellar ataxia type 1(SCA1), SCA2, SCA6, SCAT, Machado-Joseph disease (MJD/SCA3), a carcinomaassociated with oncoprotein association (e.g., dimerization) (e.g.,breast cancer), amyloidosis, myeloma, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, kuru,cystic fibrosis, neuroblastoma, or alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiencydisease.

In Formula III, A can be N or CR³²; B can be N or CH; R³¹ can be H orNR³³R³⁴; R³¹ can be optionally substituted with 1-3 R³⁵; R³² can be H orNR³³R³⁴; R³² can be optionally substituted with 1-3 R³⁵; R³³ can be H,alkyl, or taken together with R³⁴ and the nitrogen to which it isattached forms a heterocyclyl ring; R³⁴ can be H, alkyl, arylalkyl,heteroarylalkyl, cyclylalkyl, heterocyclylalkyl or taken together withR³³ and the nitrogen to which it is attached to form a heterocyclylring; each R³⁵ can be, independently, halo (e.g., bromo), hydroxy,amino, nitro, alkyl, aryl, arylacyl, arylalkyl, heteroaryl,heteroarylacyl, heteroarylalkyl; cyclylacyl; heterocyclylacyl; oralkylacyl; R³⁵ can be optionally substituted with 1-4 R³⁶; each R³⁶ canbe, independently, halo (e.g., bromo), alkyl, nitro, amino or hydroxy.Specific compounds that conform to Formula III are shown in Table 3.

In specific embodiments, the invention features a purified orsubstantially pure compound of Formula III and compositions comprisingsuch compounds (e.g., pharmaceutical or physiologically acceptablecompositions). Referring to Formula III, A can be N or CR³²; B can be Nor CH; R³¹ can be H or NR³³R³⁴; wherein R³¹ is optionally substitutedwith 1-3 R³⁵; R³² can be H or NR³³R³⁴; wherein R³² optionallysubstituted with 1-3 R³⁵; R³³ can be H, alkyl, or taken together withR³⁴ and the nitrogen to which it is attached, can form a heterocyclylring; R³⁴ can be H, alkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cyclylalkyl,heterocyclylalkyl or, taken together with R³³ and the nitrogen to whichit is attached, can form a heterocyclyl ring; each R³⁵ can be,independently halo, hydroxy, amino, nitro, alkyl, aryl, arylacyl,arylalkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylacyl, heteroarylalkyl, cyclylacyl,heterocyclylacyl, or alkylacyl, wherein R³⁵ can be, optionally,substituted with 1-4 R³⁶; and each R³⁶ can be, independently, halo,alkyl, nitro, amino or hydroxy.

For example, A can be CR³²; B can be N; and R³² can be H. R³¹ can beNR³³R³⁴ and R³³ and R³⁴, together with the nitrogen to which they areattached, can form a heterocyclyl ring. For example, R³³ and R³⁴,together with the nitrogen to which they are attached, can form a ring(e.g., a piperazinyl, piperidinyl, or morpholinyl ring). Theheterocyclyl ring can be substituted with R³⁵, which can be an alkyl,hydroxyl, or arylacyl group. Where R³⁵ is arylacyl, it can besubstituted with 1-3 halo.

In another embodiment, A is N, B is CH, and R³¹ is NR³³R³⁴. In thisembodiment and others, R³³ and R³⁴, together with the nitrogen to whichthey are attached, can form a heterocyclyl ring (e.g., a piperazinyl,piperidinyl, or morpholinyl ring). The heterocyclyl ring can besubstituted with R³⁵, which can be an alkyl, hydroxyl, or arylacyl. Thearaylacyl can be substituted with 1-3 halo.

In another embodiment, A is CR³², B is N, R³¹ is H, and R³² is NR³³R³⁴.In this embodiment and others, R³³ and R³⁴, together with the nitrogento which they are attached, can form a heterocyclyl ring (e.g., apiperazinyl or piperidinyl ring). The heterocyclyl ring can besubstituted with R³⁵, which can be, for example, alkyl or arylacyl.

Accordingly, the compounds and compositions of the invention can be, orcan include:(4-Chloro-phenyl)-[4-(8-nitro-quinolin-5-yl)-piperazin-1-yl]-methanone;(2-Chloro-4,5-difluoro-phenyl)-[4-(5-nitro-quinolin-8-yl)-piperazin-1-yl]-methanone;(2-Chloro-4,5-difluoro-phenyl)-[4-(8-nitro-quinolin-5-yl)-piperazin-1-yl]-methanone;(2-Fluoro-phenyl)-[4-(8-nitro-quinolin-5-yl)-piperazin-1-yl]-methanone;(3,4-Dichloro-phenyl)-[4-(5-nitro-quinolin-8-yl)-piperazin-1-yl]-methanone;1-(8-Nitro-quinolin-5-yl)-piperidin-3-ol;(2-Fluoro-phenyl)-[4-(5-nitro-quinolin-8-yl)-piperazin-1-yl]-methanone;8-Nitro-4-piperidin-1-yl-quinoline;4-(4-Methyl-piperazin-1-yl)-8-nitro-quinoline;5-Morpholin-4-yl-8-nitro-quinoline;(3-Morpholin-4-yl-propyl)-(8-nitro-quinolin-5-yl)-amine;8-Nitro-5-piperazin-1-yl-quinoline;8-(4-Methyl-piperazin-1-yl)-5-nitro-quinoline; and/or5-Nitro-8-(4-phenyl-piperazin-1-yl)-quinoline. For example, thecompounds and compositions of the invention can be, or can include acompound shown in Table 3.

TABLE 3 GIII

Formula III E1

(4-Chloro-phenyl)-[4-(8-nitro-quinolin- 5-yl)-piperazin-1-yl]-methanoneE2

(2-Chloro-4,5-difluoro-phenyl)-[4-(5-nitro-quinolin-8-yl)-piperazin-1-yl]- methanone E3

(2-Chloro-4,5-difluoro-phenyl)-[4-(8-nitro-quinolin-5-yl)-piperazin-1-yl]- methanone E4

(2-Fluoro-phenyl)-[4-(8-nitro-quinolin- 5-yl)-piperazin-1-yl]-methanoneE5

(3,4-Dichloro-phenyl)-[4-(5-nitro- quinolin-8-yl)-piperazin-1-yl]-methanone E7

(2-Fluoro-phenyl)-[4-(5-nitro-quinolin- 8-yl)-piperazin-1-yl]-methanoneE8

8-Nitro-4-piperidin-1-yl-quinoline E9

4-(4-Methyl-piperazin-1-yl)-8-nitro- quinoline E10

5-Morpholin-4-yl-8-nitro-quinoline E11

(3-Morpholin-4-yl-propyl)-(8-nitro- quinolin-5-yl)-amine E12

8-Nitro-5-piperazin-1-yl-quinoline E13

8-(4-Methyl-piperazin-1-yl)-5-nitro- quinoline E14

5-Nitro-8-(4-phenyl-piperazin-1-yl)- quinoline

While pharmaceutical formulations are described further below, we notehere, that the compounds of the invention, including those justdescribed, can be formulated for oral or parenteral administration to apatient. Likewise, while methods are described further elsewhere herein,we note that the invention encompasses methods of treating a subject whohas, who has been diagnosed as having, or who is at risk of developing,a disorder characterized by an undesirable association of proteins. Themethods can include the step of identifying the subject (or patient) andadministering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of apharmaceutical composition that includes any of the compounds describedherein (e.g., a compound conforming to Formula III). The subject mayhave been diagnosed as having, or at risk of developing, Huntington'sdisease, Parkinson's disease, spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy,dentatorubral-pallidoluysian atrophy, spinocerebellar ataxia type 1(SCA1), SCA2, SCA6, SCAT, Machado-Joseph disease (MJD/SCA3), a carcinomaassociated with oncoprotein association (e.g., dimerization) (e.g.,breast cancer), amyloidosis, myeloma, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, kuru,cystic fibrosis, neuroblastoma, or alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiencydisease.

In Formula IV, D can be O, S, or NH; E can be O or NH; R⁴¹ can be halo(e.g., bromo), alkyl, amino, hydroxy, alkoxy; R⁴² can be alkyl,arylalkyl, cyclyl, or cyclylalkyl; R⁴³ can be alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl,aryl, arylalkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, cyclyl, cyclylalkyl,heterocyclyl, or heterocyclylalkyl, where R⁴³ is optionally substitutedwith 1-4 R⁴⁵; R⁴⁴ can be alkyl, cyclyl, cyclylalkyl, aryl, arylalkyl,heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, heterocyclyl, or heterocyclylalkyl, whereR⁴⁴ is optionally substituted with 1-4 R⁴⁶; each R⁴⁵ can beindependently halo (e.g., bromo), alkyl, amino, amido, hydroxy, alkoxy,nitro, cyano, thio, alkylthio, sulfonyl, or sulfonamidyl; and each R⁴⁶can be independently halo (e.g., bromo), alkyl, amino, amido, hydroxy,alkoxy, nitro, cyano, thio, alkylthio, sulfonyl, or sulfonamidyl.Specific compounds that conform to Formula IV are shown in Table 4.

In specific embodiments, the invention features a purified orsubstantially pure compound of Formula IV and compositions comprisingsuch compounds (e.g., pharmaceutical or physiologically acceptablecompositions). Referring to Formula IV, D can be O, S, or NH; E can be Oor NH; R⁴¹ can be halo, alkyl, amino, hydroxy, alkoxy; R⁴² can be alkyl,arylalkyl, cyclyl, or cyclylalkyl; R⁴³ can be alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl,aryl, arylalkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, cyclyl, cyclylalkyl,heterocyclyl, heterocyclylalkyl, wherein R⁴³ is optionally substitutedwith 1-4 R⁴⁵R⁴⁴; can be alkyl, cyclyl, cyclylalkyl, aryl, arylalkyl,heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, heterocyclyl, or heterocyclylalkyl, whereinR⁴⁴ is optionally substituted with 1-4 R⁴⁶; each R⁴⁵ can be,independently, halo (e.g., bromo), alkyl, amino, amido, hydroxy, alkoxy,nitro, cyano, thio, alkylthio, sulfonyl, or sulfonamidyl; and each R⁴⁶can be, independently, halo, alkyl, amino, amido, hydroxy, alkoxy,nitro, cyano, thio, alkylthio, sulfonyl, or sulfonamidyl. For example, Dcan be S, R⁴¹ can be alkyl or methyl, E can be NH, R⁴⁴ can be alkyl oraryl (e.g., aryl substituted with alkoxy).

In other embodiments, E can be O, and R⁴² and R⁴⁴ can be alkyl (e.g.,C₂₋₃ alkyl). In this or other embodiments, R⁴² can be ethyl orisopropyl. In this or other embodiments, R⁴³ can be aryl or arylalkyl(e.g., R⁴³ can be aryl substituted with 1-4 halo, alkyl, or sulfonamidylgroups or arylalkyl substituted with alkoxy).

In some embodiments, D can be S; E can be NH; R⁴¹ can be alkyl; and R⁴²can be alkyl. In this or other embodiments, R⁴³ can be aryl or arylalkyl(e.g., R⁴³ can be aryl substituted with 1-4 halo, alkyl, or sulfonamidylgroups or arylalkyl substituted with alkoxy). R⁴⁴ can be alkyl or aryl(e.g., aryl substituted with alkoxy).

In another embodiment, D can be S; E can be O; R⁴¹ can be alkyl; and R⁴²can be alkyl. Further, R⁴³ can be aryl, and R⁴⁴ can be alkyl. R⁴³ canaryl substituted with two chloro and one sulfonamidyl.

Accordingly, the compounds and compositions of the invention can be, orcan include:2-[2-(4-Methoxy-phenyl)-acetylamino]-5-(2-methoxy-phenylcarbamoyl)-4-methyl-thiophene-3-carboxylicacid ethyl ester;5-(2-Methoxy-phenylcarbamoyl)-4-methyl-2-(2-methyl-benzoylamino)-thiophene-3-carboxylicacid ethyl ester;5-Diethylcarbamoyl-2-(4-fluoro-benzoylamino)-4-methyl-thiophene-3-carboxylicacid isopropyl ester; or5-(2,4-Dichloro-5-sulfamoyl-benzoylamino)-3-methyl-thiophene-2,4-dicarboxylicacid diethyl ester. The invention encompasses the compounds shown inTable 4 and compositions containing them.

TABLE 4 GIV

Formula IV D1

2-[2-(4-Methoxy-phenyl)- acetylamino]-5-(2-methoxy-phenylcarbamoyl)-4-methyl- thiophene-3-carboxylic acid ethyl ester D2

5-(2-Methoxy-phenylcarbamoyl)-4- methyl-2-(2-methyl-benzoylamino)-thiophene-3-carboxylic acid ethyl ester D3

5-Diethylcarbamoyl-2-(4-fluoro- benzoylamino)-4-methyl-thiophene-3-carboxylic acid isopropyl ester D4

5-(2,4-Dichloro-5-sulfamoyl- benzoylamino)-3-methyl-thiophene-2,4-dicarboxylic acid diethyl ester

Further with respect to Formula IV, and in some embodiments, R⁴¹ isalkyl, for example a lower alkyl, such as methyl, ethyl, propyl, orbutyl. Preferred embodiments may include those where R⁴¹ is methyl.

The core can also be substituted with an ester, for example, as depictedabove as C(O)OR⁴². Examples of suitable R⁴² moieties include, but arenot limited to alkyl, arylalkyl, cyclyl, or cyclylalkyl. The core canalso be substituted with at least one amide positioned adjacent to theheteroatom. For example, as can be seen above, the core is substitutedwith NHC(O)R⁴³. Examples of R⁴³ include, but are not limited to alkyl,alkenyl, alkynyl, aryl, arylalkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, cyclyl,cyclylalkyl, heterocyclyl, heterocyclylalkyl. In some instances, R⁴³ isfurther substituted with one or more substituents, including forexample, halo, alkyl, amino, amido, hydroxy, alkoxy, nitro, cyano, thio,alkylthio, sulfonyl, or sulfonamidyl.

The core can be substituted with an additional carbonyl, for example anester or an amide. In preferred embodiment, the core is substituted asabove with C(O)NHR⁴⁴. Examples of R⁴⁴ include, but are not limited toalkyl, cyclyl, cyclylalkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, heteroaryl,heteroarylalkyl, heterocyclyl, or heterocyclylalkyl. In some instances,R⁴⁴ is further substituted with one or more substituents, including forexample, halo, alkyl, amino, amido, hydroxy, alkoxy, nitro, cyano, thio,alkylthio, sulfonyl, or sulfonamidyl.

While pharmaceutical formulations are described further below, we notehere, that the compounds of the invention, including those justdescribed, can be formulated for oral or parenteral administration to apatient. Likewise, while methods are described further elsewhere herein,we note that the invention encompasses methods of treating a subject whohas, who has been diagnosed as having, or who is at risk of developing,a disorder characterized by an undesirable association of proteins. Themethods can include the step of identifying the subject (or patient) andadministering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of apharmaceutical composition that includes any of the compounds describedherein (e.g., a compound conforming to Formula IV). The subject may havebeen diagnosed as having, or at risk of developing, Huntington'sdisease, Parkinson's disease, spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy,dentatorubral-pallidoluysian atrophy, spinocerebellar ataxia type 1(SCA1), SCA2, SCA6, SCAT, Machado-Joseph disease (MJD/SCA3), a carcinomaassociated with oncoprotein association (e.g., dimerization) (e.g.,breast cancer), amyloidosis, myeloma, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, kuru,cystic fibrosis, neuroblastoma, or alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiencydisease.

The compounds of Formulas V(a) through V(u) are shown in Table 5.

TABLE 5 Compound M1 Formula V(a)

  3-Amino-4,6-dimethyl-thieno[2,3-b]pyridine-2-carboxylic acid amideCompound M2 Formula V(b)

  N-(4-Phenylamino-phenyl)-2-m-tolyloxy-acetamide Compound M3 FormulaV(c)

  N-(4-(phenylamino)phenyl)-2-(o-tolyloxy)acetamide Compound M4 FormulaV(d)

  5-Bromo-N-(4-sulfamoyl-phenyl)-nicotinamide Compound M5 Formula V(e)

 2-[N′-(3-Aminomethoxy-4-hydroxy-benzylidene)-hydrazino]-N,N-diethyl-2-oxo-acetamideCompound M6 Formula V(f)

 N-(2,4-Dimethoxy-benzylidene)-N′-(3-methyl-3H-benzothiazol-2-ylidene)-hydrazineCompound M7 Formula V(g)

  {2-[(5-Nitro-furan-2-carbonyl)-amino]-thiazol-4-yl}- acetic acid ethylester Compound M8 Formula V(h)

 [2-(6-Ethoxy-4-methyl-quinazolin-2-ylamino)-5-oxo-1,5-dihydro-imidazol-4-ylidene]-aceticacid Compound M9 Formula V(i)

 3-[2-(2,4-Dimethyl-thiazol-5-yl)-2-oxo-ethylidene]-3,4-dihydro-benzo[1,4]oxazin-2-oneCompound M10 Formula V(j)

  (E)-2,4-dichloro-6-((2-hydroxy-3,5-dimethylphenylimino)methyl)phenolCompound M11 Formula V(k)

  N,N′-(ethane-1,2-diyl)bis(N-benzylfuran-2-carboxamide) Compound M14Formula V(l) aka C3 aka C6

 3-[2-(2-Methylsulfanyl-but-1-enyl)-naphtho[1,2-d]thiazol-1-yl]-propane-1-sulfonicacid anion Compound M15 Formula V(m) aka C5

  2-Hydroxy-benzoic acid 2-(4-ethoxy-phenyl)-2-oxo-ethyl ester CompoundM16 Formula V(n)

Compound M17 Formula V(o) aka C3-6

  2-Phenyl-thiazolo[4,5-c]quinoline Compound M18 Formula V(p)

 8,9-Dimethoxy-5,5-dimethyl-5,6-dihydro-2H-1,2,4-triaza-benzo[e]azulen-3-oneCompound M19 Formula V(q)

  4-[4-(3,4-Dimethoxy-phenyl)-thiazol-2-ylamino]-phenol Compound M20Formula V(r)

 2-[1-(2-Hydroxy-phenylamino)-propylidene]-5-phenyl-cyclohexane-1,3-dioneCompound M21 Formula V(s)

  2-(4-Nitro-thiophen-2-yl)-2,3-dihydro-1H-benzoimidazole Compound M22Formula V(t) aka C3-5

  2-(4-chlorophenyl)thiazolo[4,5-c]quinoline Compound M23 Formula V(u)

  3-butyl-2-methyl-2,3-dihydrobenzo[d]thiazole

Each of the variables designated by, for example, R, X, Y, m, and n inany of the formulas disclosed herein can be selected independently.While we tend to use the term “compound(s)”, we may also use terms like“agent(s)” to refer to the molecules described herein.

DEFINITIONS

The following definitions apply to the terms used in connection with anyof the formulas herein. The term “halo” or “halogen” refers to anyradical of fluorine, chlorine, bromine or iodine. The terms“cyclylalkyl” and “cycloalkyl” refer to saturated monocyclic, bicyclic,tricyclic, or other polycyclic hydrocarbon groups. Any atom can besubstituted by, for example, one or more substituents. Cycloalkyl groupscan contain fused rings, which share a common carbon atom. Cycloalkylmoieties can include, for example, cyclopropyl, cyclohexyl,methylcyclohexyl (the point of attachment to another moiety can beeither the methyl group or a cyclohexyl ring carbon), adamantyl, andnorbornyl.

The term “alkenyl” refers to a straight or branched hydrocarbon chaincontaining 2-20 carbon atoms and having one or more double bonds. Anyatom can be substituted by one or more substituents. Alkenyl groups caninclude, for example, allyl, propenyl, 2-butenyl, 3-hexenyl and3-octenyl groups. One of the double bond carbons can optionally be thepoint of attachment of the alkenyl substituent. The term “alkynyl”refers to a straight or branched hydrocarbon chain containing 2-20carbon atoms and having one or more triple bonds. Any atom can besubstituted by one or more substituents. Alkynyl groups can include, forexample, ethynyl, propargyl, and 3-hexynyl. One of the triple bondcarbons can optionally be the point of attachment of the alkynylsubstituent.

The term “alkoxy” refers to an —O-alkyl radical. The term “heterocyclyl”refers to a monocyclic, bicyclic, tricyclic or other polycyclic ringsystem having: 1-4 heteroatoms if monocyclic; 1-8 heteroatoms ifbicyclic; or 1-10 heteroatoms if tricyclic. The heteroatoms can be O, N,or S (e.g., carbon atoms and 1-4, 1-8, or 1-10 heteroatoms of N, O, or Sif monocyclic, bicyclic, or tricyclic, respectively). The heteroatom canoptionally be the point of attachment of the heterocyclyl substituent.Any atom can be substituted, by, for example, one or more substituents.The heterocyclyl groups can contain fused rings, which share a commoncarbon atom. Heterocyclyl groups can include, for example,tetrahydrofuranyl, tetrahydropyranyl, piperidinyl, morpholino,pyrrolinyl, and pyrrolidinyl.

The term “heteroaryl” refers to an aromatic monocyclic, bicyclic,tricyclic, or other polycyclic hydrocarbon groups having: 1-4heteroatoms if monocyclic; 1-8 heteroatoms if bicyclic; or 1-10heteroatoms if tricyclic. The heteroatoms can be O, N, or S (e.g.,carbon atoms and 1-4, 1-8, or 1-10 heteroatoms of N, O, or S ifmonocyclic, bicyclic, or tricyclic, respectively). Any atom can besubstituted by, for example, one or more substituents. Heteroaryl groupscan contain fused rings, which share a common carbon atom. Heteroarylgroups include pyridyl, thienyl, furanyl, imidazolyl, and pyrrolyl.

The term “oxo” refers to an oxygen atom, which forms a carbonyl whenattached to carbon, an N-oxide when attached to nitrogen, and asulfoxide or sulfone when attached to sulfur.

The term “substituents” refers to a group “substituted” on, for example,an alkyl, cycloalkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, aralkyl, heteroaralkyl,heterocyclyl, heterocycloalkenyl, cycloalkenyl, aryl, or heteroarylgroup at any atom of that group. In one aspect, the substituents on agroup are independently any one single, or any subset of, theaforementioned substituents. In another aspect, a substituent may itselfbe substituted with any one of the above substituents.

Salts, Solvates, and Other Variants:

The invention also encompasses pharmaceutically acceptable salts orsolvates of a compound of any of Formulas I-IV or V(a)-V(u), andprodrugs, metabolites, structural analogs, and other pharmaceuticallyuseful variants thereof. These other variants may be, for example, acomplex containing the compound and a targeting moiety, as describedfurther below, a second therapeutic agent or a detectable marker (e.g.,the compound may incorporate a radioactive isotope or be joined to afluorescent compound). When in the form of a prodrug, a compound may bemodified in vivo (e.g., intracellularly) after being administered to apatient or to a cell in culture. The modified compound (i.e., theprocessed prodrug) may be identical to a compound described herein andwill be biologically active or have enough activity to be clinicallybeneficial. The same is true of a metabolite; a given compound may bemodified within a cell and yet retain sufficient biological activity tobe clinically useful.

A salt, for example, can be formed between an anion and a positivelycharged substituent (e.g., amino) on a compound described herein.Suitable anions include chloride, bromide, iodide, sulfate, nitrate,phosphate, citrate, methanesulfonate, trifluoroacetate, and acetate.Likewise, a salt can also be formed between a cation and a negativelycharged substituent (e.g., carboxylate) on a compound described herein.Suitable cations include sodium ion, potassium ion, magnesium ion,calcium ion, and an ammonium cation such as tetramethylammonium ion.

Examples of prodrugs include esters and other pharmaceuticallyacceptable derivatives, which, upon administration to a subject, arecapable of providing active compounds. A “prodrug” may be anypharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, salt of an ester, or otherderivative of a compound of this invention (for example an imidate esterof an amide), which, upon administration to a recipient, is capable ofproviding (directly or indirectly) a compound of this invention.Particularly favored derivatives and prodrugs are those that increasethe bioavailability of the compounds of this invention when suchcompounds are administered to a mammal (e.g., by allowing an orallyadministered compound to be more readily absorbed into the blood) orwhich enhance delivery of the parent compound to a biologicalcompartment (e.g., the brain or lymphatic system) relative to the parentspecies. Preferred prodrugs include derivatives where a group whichenhances aqueous solubility or active transport through the gut membraneis appended to the structure of formulae described herein.

The compounds of this invention may be modified by appending appropriatefunctionalities to enhance selected biological properties (e.g.,targeting to a particular tissue). Such modifications are known in theart and include those which increase biological penetration into a givenbiological compartment (e.g., blood, lymphatic system, central nervoussystem), increase oral availability, increase solubility to allowadministration by injection, alter metabolism and alter rate ofexcretion.

The compounds of the invention may contain one or more asymmetriccenters and thus occur as racemates and racemic mixtures, singleenantiomers, individual diastereomers and diastereomeric mixtures. Allsuch isomeric forms of these compounds are expressly included in thepresent invention. The compounds of this invention may also containlinkages (e.g., carbon-carbon bonds) wherein bond rotation is restrictedabout that particular linkage (e.g., restriction resulting from thepresence of a ring or double bond). Accordingly, all cis/trans and E/Zisomers are expressly included in the present invention. The compoundsof this invention may also be represented in multiple tautomeric forms,in such instances, the invention expressly includes all tautomeric formsof the compounds described herein, even though only a single tautomericform may be represented (e.g., alkylation of a ring system may result inalkylation at multiple sites, the invention expressly includes all suchreaction products). All such isomeric forms of such compounds areexpressly included in the present invention. All crystal forms of thecompounds described herein are expressly included in the presentinvention.

As noted, the compounds of the invention may be mixed with or joined toa detectable marker or tag, to another therapeutic agent, or to a moietythat facilitates passage across the blood-brain barrier (see below).

Packaged Products:

The compounds described herein can be packaged in suitable containerslabeled, for example, for use as a therapy to treat a disease ordisorder characterized by protein aggregation or another form ofundesirable association. The containers can include the compound (i.e.,the diagnostic/prophylactic/therapeutic agent) and one or more of asuitable stabilizer, carrier molecule, flavoring, and/or the like, asappropriate for the intended use. Accordingly, packaged products (e.g.,sterile containers containing one or more of the compounds describedherein and packaged for storage, shipment, or sale at concentrated orready-to-use concentrations) and kits, including at least one compoundof the invention and instructions for use, are also within the scope ofthe invention. A product can include a container (e.g., a vial, jar,bottle, bag, or the like) containing one or more compounds of theinvention and a legend (e.g., a printed label or insert or other mediumdescribing the product's use (e.g., an audio- or videotape)). The legendcan be associated with the container (e.g., affixed to the container)and can describe the manner in which the compound therein should beadministered (e.g., the frequency and route of administration),indications therefore, and other uses. The compounds can be ready foradministration (e.g., present in dose-appropriate units), and mayinclude a pharmaceutically acceptable adjuvant, carrier or other diluentand/or an additional therapeutic agent. Alternatively, the compounds canbe provided in a concentrated form with a diluent and instructions fordilution.

Stability:

Combinations of substituents and variables envisioned by this inventionare only those that result in the formation of stable compounds. Theterm “stable,” as used herein, refers to compounds that are stableenough to allow manufacture and that maintain their integrity for asufficient period of time to be useful for the purposes detailed herein(e.g., therapeutic or prophylactic administration to a subject).

Purity:

In one aspect, the invention features substantially pure preparations ofthe compounds described herein or combinations thereof. A naturallyoccurring compound is substantially pure when it is separated to somedegree from the compound(s) or other entities (e.g., proteins, fats, orminerals) it is associated with in nature. For example, a naturallyoccurring compound described herein is substantially pure when it hasbeen separated from 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%,98%, 99% or more of the compound(s) or other moieties it is associatedwith in nature. These degrees of purity are not limiting, however, thecompounds of the invention need be only as pure as necessary to cause abeneficial clinical result and to conform with good manufacturingpractices. While the compounds of the invention may be naturallyoccurring and may be purified using conventional techniques, they mayalso be non-naturally occurring and may be synthesized (naturallyoccurring compounds can be synthesized as well; see below). Compoundsprepared by chemical synthesis are substantially pure, as are compoundsthat have been separated from a library of chemical compounds. Asubstantially pure compound may be one that is separated from all theother members of the compound library or it may be one that has beenseparated to a limited extent (e.g., it may remain associated with alimited number (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5-10) of other members of thelibrary. As noted, while more than one of the agents described hereincan be formulated within the same composition, and while thecompositions can also include a second therapeutic agent (as describedherein), the pharmaceutical compositions of the invention expresslyexclude extremely heterogeneous mixtures, such as libraries (e.g.,combinatorial or compound libraries, including those that containsynthetic and/or natural products, and custom analog libraries, whichmay contain compounds based on a common scaffold). Such libraries caninclude hundreds or thousands of distinct compounds or random poolsthereof. Whether or not commercially available, such libraries areexcluded from the meaning of a pharmaceutical composition.

Formulations:

Regardless of their original source or the manner in which they areobtained, the compounds of the invention can be formulated in accordancewith their use. For example, the compounds can be formulated withincompositions for application to cells in tissue culture or foradministration to a patient. For example, the compounds can be mixedwith a sterile, pharmaceutically acceptable diluent (such as normalsaline). As noted below, and as known in the art, the type of diluentcan vary depending upon the intended route of administration. Theresulting compositions can include additional agents, such aspreservatives. The compounds may also be applied to a surface of adevice (e.g., a catheter) or contained within a pump, patch, or otherdrug delivery device. The therapeutic agents of the invention can beadministered alone, or in a mixture, in the presence of apharmaceutically acceptable excipient or carrier (e.g., physiologicalsaline). The excipient or carrier is selected on the basis of the modeand route of administration. Suitable pharmaceutical carriers, as wellas pharmaceutical necessities for use in pharmaceutical formulations,are described in Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences (E. W. Martin), awell-known reference text in this field, and in the USP/NF (UnitedStates Pharmacopeia and the National Formularly).

A pharmaceutical composition (e.g., a composition containing atherapeutic agent or the DNA molecule encoding it) is formulated to becompatible with its intended route of administration. Examples of routesof administration include oral, rectal, and parenteral, for example,intravenous, intradermal, and subcutaneous, transdermal (topical), andtransmucosal administration. Variants of the compounds described herein,formulated to cross the blood-brain barrier, are described below.

Diagnostic, Prophylactic and Therapeutic Use:

The compounds identified by the methods described herein (which may alsobe referred to herein as “therapeutic agents”) may be used to treat avariety of disorders, including Huntington's disease. For example, thecompounds described herein can be included as therapeutic agents inpharmaceutical compositions to treat HD and other conditions describedherein that are mediated by (or characterized by) protein-proteinassociation. The therapeutic agents of the invention can be used totreat any disease, disorder, or condition that results from an abnormalor undesirable association between two polypeptides (like or unlike).For example, the therapeutic agents of the invention can be used totreat neurodegenerative disorders (e.g., Huntington's Disease can beinhibited by inhibiting the association of huntingtin proteins) anddisorders in which polyglutamine-containing transcription factors orcoactivators are undesirably active (e.g., disorders (e.g., cancers)associated with homodimerization of jun or hexamerization of p53).

Treating a subject can encompass administration of a therapeutic agentas a prophylactic measure to prevent the occurrence of disease or tolessen the severity or duration of the symptoms associated with thedisease. Physicians and others of ordinary skill in the art routinelymake determinations as to the success or failure of a treatment.Treatment can be deemed successful despite the fact that not everysymptom of the disease is totally eradicated. Treatment can also bedeemed successful despite side-effects.

It is usual in the course of developing a therapeutic agent that testsof that agent in vitro or in cell culture are followed by tests inanimal models of human disease, and further, by clinical trials forsafety and efficacy in humans. Accepted animal models for many diseasesare now known to those of ordinary skill in the art. For example,therapeutic agents of the present invention can be screened in aDrosophila model of neurodegeneration as well as in more evolutionarilyadvanced animals.

Mammalian models for Huntington's disease are available. To generatesimilar animal models, a homolog of the aggregation-disposed polypeptideis first cloned from the genome of the selected mammal using standardtechniques. For example, the sequence can be amplified by PCR orobtained by screening an appropriate library under conditions of lowstringency (as described, e.g., in Sambrook et al. supra.).Subsequently, trinucleotide repeats can be introduced into the gene bymolecular cloning and mutagenesis techniques. For example, in a HDmodel, CAG repeats can be introduced in the HD gene. The site forinsertion of the repeat sequence can be located by alignment of the cDNAfrom the desired mammal with the human cDNA for the aggregation-disposedprotein. The modified gene with artificially expanded repeats can bereintroduced into the mammal using standard methods for transgenesis.

Methods for generating transgenic mice are routine in the art (See,e.g., Hogan et al., Manipulating the Mouse Embryo, Cold Spring HarborLaboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. (1994)). As an example, amouse bearing a transgene comprising the HD gene and expanded CAGrepeats has symptoms similar to the human disease. Murine symptoms caninclude hyperactivity, circling, abnormal gait, tremors, learningdeficits, hypoactivity, and hypokinesis. Neuropathological symptomsinclude general brain atrophy, progressive striatal atrophy, neuropilaggregates, inclusions in the striatum, reduced dendritic spines, cellloss in the cortex, and striatum.

Any of these behavioral or physiological deficits can be assessed inorder to determine the efficacy of a given therapeutic agent of theinvention. For example, the agent can be administered to a transgenicmouse model, generated as described above. The symptoms of a treatedmouse can be compared to untreated mice at various times during andafter treatment. In addition, treated and untreated mice can besacrificed at various intervals after treatment, and the neuropathologyof the brain can be analyzed. Thus, the efficacy of the treatment can beevaluated readily by comparing the behavioral symptoms,neuropathological symptoms, and clinical symptoms of treated anduntreated mice.

In specific embodiments, the compositions of the present invention canbe administered to a subject having any disease mediated by (orcharacterized by) an abnormal or unwanted association of one proteinwith another. Examples include immunoglobulin light chain amyloidosis,HD, Parkinson's disease, adult-onset diabetes, cirrhosis (e.g.,cirrhosis of the liver), emphysema, or a prion disease, such asCreutzfeldt-Jakob disease. Other conditions that can be treated orprevented with one or more of the compounds of the present inventioninclude amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, dentatorubral pallidoluysianatrophy, spinal bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA; also known as Kennedy'sdisease), any of the several types of spinocerebellar ataxias (e.g.,SCA1, SCA2, SCA6, SCAT and Machado-Joseph disease (MJD/SCA3)),dentatorubral-pallidoluysian atrophy, and disorders in whichpolyglutamine-containing transcription factors or coactivators areundesirably active (e.g., disorders associated with homodimerization ofjun or hexamerization of p53). For example, a subject may have beendiagnosed as having, or at risk for developing, a carcinoma (e.g.,breast cancer), amyloidosis, a myeloma, kuru, a neuroblastoma, cysticfibrosis, an alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency disease, or a disorder witha similar underlying cellular basis (i.e., an association withundesirable (e.g., excessive or insufficient) protein-proteinaggregation, dimerization, or other interaction).

The synuclein proteins (alpha, beta and gamma synuclein) have beenimplicated in Parkinson's disease and breast cancer, and are targets forthe compositions of the invention. As targets, these proteins can beincorporated in the screening assays described herein. Proteins such asamyloid light chains and amyloid-associated proteins, which areassociated with amyloidosis, can also be targeted by the compositionsand methods of the invention. Other aggregation- or association-disposedpolypeptides include: mutant transthyretin, which is associated withfamilial amyloid polyneuropathies; beta2 microglobulin, aggregation ofwhich causes complications during chronic renal dialysis; immunoglobulinlight chain, which is associated with multiple myelomas and variousother B-cell proliferations; prion proteins, which cause spongiformencephalopathies such as Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and kuru in humans;cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), which is ahallmark of cystic fibrosis; p53, which has been observed to aggregatein some neuroblastomas, carcinomas, and myelomas; andalpha-1-antitrypsin, which aggregates in patients withalpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency disease.

Subjects who are treated with the compounds of the invention may havebeen diagnosed with any disease characterized by aberrant or undesirableassociation between proteins, whether that association occurs to agreater or lesser extent than is normal (in, e.g., a healthy patient) ordesirable. Alternatively, the subject may be at risk for developingthese disorders. For example, a subject may have a family history or agenetic mutation or element (e.g., an expanded trinucleotide repeat)that contributes to the development of disease. Human subjects, inconsult with their physicians and/or other health care professionals,can decide whether their risk is great enough to undergo preventativecare (as is the case for any prophylactic treatment or procedure). Whilethe subjects of the preventative and/or therapeutic regimes describedherein may be human, the compounds and compositions of the invention canalso be administered to non-human subjects.

The prophylactic and therapeutic methods can be carried out byadministering to the subject a pharmaceutical composition containing atherapeutically effective amount of one or more of the compoundsdescribed herein. While a single compound may be effective, theinvention is not so limited. A subject can be treated with multiplecompounds, administered simultaneously or sequentially. For example, asubject can be treated with one or more of the compounds describedherein and, optionally, a chemotherapeutic agent, an analgesic, abronchodilator, levodopa or a similar medication. The combinationtherapy will, of course, depend on the disorder being treated. Where acompound of the invention is administered to treat a patient with acancer, it may be combined with a known chemotherapeutic agents used totreat that type of cancer; where a compound of the invention isadministered to treat a patient with Parkinson's disease, it may becombined with a medication to increase dopamine levels in the brain; andso forth.

Compounds that mediate association between proteins can also be used todiagnose diseases characterized by protein aggregation (or, as notedabove, other undesirable interaction (e.g., dimerization or complexformation)). These methods can be carried out by providing a biologicalsample from a patient suspected of having a disease associated with anabnormal or undesirable association between proteins; exposing thesample to a compound of the invention; and determining whether thecompound modulates the association of proteins within the sample. Thecompound can be one that is known to interact directly with a primarytarget or one that modulates protein-protein interaction by actingupstream from the primary target. The compound can also be one that isknown to interact with proteins in the context of the suspected disease.For example, a compound that is known to inhibit the aggregation ofHuntingtin can be used to diagnose a patient suspected of having HD. Thesample will be exposed to the compound for a time and under conditions(e.g., physiological conditions of temperature and pH) sufficient topermit the compound to affect proteins within the sample (e.g.,Huntingtin, tau, or Aβ proteins within cells within the sample). Thediagnostic methods can be carried out before, after, or in conjunctionwith other diagnostic tests, and their results can inform the subject'streatment regime. For example, where a compound is found to modulate theaggregation of Huntingtin proteins in a sample obtained from a patientsuspected of having HD, that compound may then be used to treat thepatient.

The blood-brain barrier is an obstacle for the delivery of drugs fromcirculation in the bloodstream to the brain. The endothelial cells ofbrain capillaries are connected by tight intercellular junctions, whichinhibit the passive movement of compounds out of the blood plasma intothe brain. These cells also have reduced pinocytic vesicles in order torestrict the indiscriminate transport of materials intracellularly.These features of the brain regulate the exchange of materials betweenplasma and the central nervous system. Both active and passive transportmechanisms operate to exclude certain molecules from traversing thebarrier. For example, lipophilic compounds are more permeable to thebarrier than hydrophilic compounds (Goldstein et al., ScientificAmerican 255:74-83, 1996; Pardridge et al., Endocrin. Rev. 7:314-330,1996).

However, the blood-brain barrier must also allow for the selectivetransport of desired materials into the brain in order to nourish thecentral nervous system and to remove waste products. The mechanisms bywhich this is accomplished can provide the means for supplying thetherapeutic agents described herein.

The compositions of the invention can be delivered to the CNS followingconjugation with other compounds as follows (and as described furtherin, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,994,392). In one instance, polar groupson a compound are masked to generate a derivative with enhancedlipophilic qualities. For example, norepinephrine and dopamine have beenmodified with diacetyl and triacetyl esters to mask hydroxyl groups. Animplementation of this strategy has been previously used to create apro-drug derivative of dopamine (see U.S. Pat. No. 5,994,392). Themodified drugs are generally referred to as pro-drugs, and the compoundsof the invention encompass those described herein in which polar groupsare masked. This method may have the additional advantage of providingan inactive species of the compound in the general circulation. Aftercrossing the blood-brain barrier, enzymes present in the central nervoussystem are able to hydrolyze the linkages (e.g., ester linkages),thereby unmasking the compound and liberating the active drug. Thus,compounds of the invention can be chemically modified to createpro-drugs by, e.g., conjugation to a lipophilic moiety or carrier. Acompound or a variant thereof having at least one free hydroxyl or aminogroup can be coupled to a desired carrier (e.g., a fatty acid, asteroid, or another lipophilic moiety).

More specifically, and for example, the hydroxyl groups can first beprotected with acetonide. The protected agent is then reacted with thedesired carrier in the presence of a water-extracting compound (e.g.,dicyclohexyl carbodiiamide), in a solvent (e.g., dioxane,tetrahydrofurane), or N,N dimethylformamide at room temperature. Thesolvent is then removed, and the product is extracted using methodsroutinely used by those of ordinary skill in the art. Amine groups canbe coupled to a carboxyl group in the desired carrier. An amide bond isformed with an acid chloride or low carbon ester derivative of thecarrier. Bond formation is accompanied by HCl and alcohol liberation.Alcohol groups on the compound can be coupled to a desired carrier usingester bonds by forming an anhydride derivative, i.e. the acid chloridederivative, of the carrier. One of ordinary skill in the art ofchemistry will recognize that phosphoramide, sulfate, sulfonate,phosphate, and urethane couplings are also useful for coupling atherapeutic agent (e.g., a compound described herein) to a desiredcarrier. A useful and adaptable method for lipidation of antibodies isdescribed by Cruikshank et al. (J. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromesand Human Retrovirology 14:193, 1997).

Procedures for delivering therapeutic agents (or “compounds”) of theinvention to the CNS can also be carried out using the transferrinreceptor as described, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 6,015,555. Toimplement this procedure, the agents are conjugated to a molecule thatspecifically binds to the transferrin receptor (e.g., an antibody orantigen-binding fragment thereof, or transferrin). Methods for obtainingantibodies against the transferrin receptor and for coupling theantibodies to a desired compound are also described in U.S. Pat. No.6,015,555.

Monoclonal antibodies that specifically bind to the transferrin receptorinclude OX-26, T58/30, and B3/25 (Omary et al., Nature 286:888-891,1980), T56/14 (Gatter et al., J. Clin. Path. 36:539-545, 1983), OKT-9(Sutherland et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 78:4515-4519, 1981), L5.1(Rovera, Blood 59:671-678, 1982) and 5E-9 (Haynes et al., J. Immunol.127:347-351, 1981). In one embodiment, the monoclonal antibody OX-26 isused. The antibody of choice can be an Fab fragment, a F(ab′)₂ fragment,a humanized antibody, a chimeric antibody, or a single chain antibody.

The antibody to the transferrin receptor is conjugated to a desiredcompound with either a cleavable or non-cleavable linker. The preferredtype of linker can be determined without undue experimentation by makingcleavable and non-cleavable conjugates and assaying their activity in,for example, an in vitro or cell culture assay described herein. Theconjugates can be further tested in vivo (e.g., in a animal model of adisease of interest). Examples of chemical systems for generatingnon-cleavable linkers include the carbodiimmide, periodate,sulfhydryl-maleimide, and N-succinimidyl-3-(2-puridyldithio) propionate(SPDP) systems. Carbodiimide activates carboxylic acid groups, whichthen react with an amino group to generate a noncleavable amide bond.This reaction may be especially useful for coupling two proteins.Periodate is used to activate an aldehyde on an oligosaccharide groupsuch that it can react with an amino group to generate a stableconjugate. Alternatively, a hydrazide derivative of the desired compoundcan be reacted with the antibody oxidized with periodate.Sulfhydryl-maleimide and SDPD use sulfhydryl chemistry to generatenon-cleavable bonds. SDPD is a heterobifunctional crosslinker thatintroduces thiol-reactive groups. In the sulfhydryl-maleimide system, anNHS ester (e.g., gamma-maleimidobutyric acid NHS ester) is used togenerate maleimide derivative, for example, of a protein drug orantibody. The maleimide derivative can react with a free sulfhydrylgroup on the other molecule.

Cleavable linkers are also useful. Cleavable linkers include acid labilelinkers such as cis-aconitic acid, cis-carboxylic alkadienes,cis-carboxylic alkatrienes, and polypeptide-maleic anhydrides (see U.S.Pat. No. 5,144,011).

In one embodiment, the compound is a compound having one of thestructures shown in Tables 1-5. Such a compound can be covalentlyattached to an antibody specific for the transferrin receptor. In oneembodiment, use of a single chain antibody is preferred in order tofacilitate covalent fusion with the therapeutic agent.

The targeting antibody can be linked covalently to the therapeutic agent(or “compound”) of the invention. A protease recognition site can beincluded in the linker if cleavage of the antibody is required afterdelivery.

The efficacy of strategies to deliver a desired compound across theblood-brain barrier can, of course, be monitored. The desired compound,conjugated for delivery across the blood-brain barrier, is administeredto a test mammal (e.g., a rat, a mouse, a non-human primate, a cow, adog, a rabbit, a cat, or a sheep). One of ordinary skill in the artwill, however, recognize that the permeability of the blood-brainbarrier varies from species to species, with the human blood-brainbarrier being the least permeable. The mode of administration can be thesame as the desired mode of treatment (e.g., intravenous). For acomprehensive analysis, a set of test mammals is used. The test mammalsare sacrificed at various times after the agent is administered and arethen perfused through the heart with, e.g., Dulbecco'sphosphate-buffered saline (DPBS) to clear the blood from all organs. Thebrain is removed, frozen in liquid nitrogen, and subsequently sectionedin a cryostat. The sections are placed on glass microscope slides. Thepresence of the desired agent is then detected in the section, forexample with an antibody, or by having administered a radiolabeled orotherwise tagged compound (such labeled therapeutic compounds asdescribed above). Detection is indicative of the compound havingsuccessfully traversed the blood-brain barrier. If a method of enhancingthe compounds permeability to the blood-brain barrier is being assessed,then the amount of the agent detected in a brain section can be comparedto the amount detected in a brain section from an animal treated withthe same compound without the enhancing method.

The terms “blood-brain barrier permeant” or “blood-brain barrierpermeable” are qualities of a compound for which the ratio of acompound's distribution at equilibrium in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)relative to its distribution in the plasma (CSF/plasma ratio) is greaterthan at least (or about) 0.01, 0.02, 0.05, or 0.1. While lower ratiosare generally preferred, any ratio that allows a compound to be usedclinically is acceptable.

To facilitate targeting to a polypeptide of interest (e.g., to aHuntingtin or jun protein), the compound (e.g., a compound conforming toany of Formulas I IV or V(a) V(u)) can include a moiety thatspecifically binds to the target protein. For example, a compoundconforming to Formula I can be joined to an antibody or anantigen-binding portion thereof (e.g., a single chain antibody) thatspecifically binds the target protein (e.g., Huntingtin or jun).Targeting moieties are described further below.

A therapeutic vector can be administered to a subject, for example, byintravenous injection, by local administration (see U.S. Pat. No.5,328,470) or by stereotactic injection (see e.g., Chen et al., Proc.Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91:3054-3057, 1994). The compound can be furtherformulated, for example, to delay or prolong the release of the activeagent by means of a slow release matrix.

Regardless of whether or not the compound is to cross the blood-brainbarrier, it can be conjugated to a targeting agent that facilitatesinteraction with a target protein (e.g., Huntingtin or jun). As noted,the compound can be directly or indirectly joined to an antibody (e.g.,a single chain antibody) or an antigen-binding fragment thereof thatspecifically binds the target protein.

An appropriate dosage of the therapeutic agents of the invention must bedetermined. An effective amount of a therapeutic compound is the amountor dose required to ameliorate a symptom of a disorder associated withprotein aggregation, such as a disorder characterized by a trinucleotiderepeat expansion. Determining the amount required to treat a subject isroutine to one of ordinary skill in the art (e.g., a physician,pharmacist, or researcher). First, the toxicity and therapeutic efficacyof an agent (i.e. a tri-domain molecule) is determined. Routineprotocols are available for determining the LD₅₀ (the dose lethal to 50%of the population) and the ED₅₀ (the dose therapeutically effective in50% of the population) in non-human animals. The therapeutic index ismeasured as the ratio of the LD₅₀/ED₅₀. Compounds, formulations, andmethods of administration with high therapeutic indices are preferableas such treatments have little toxicity at dosages that provide highefficacy. Compounds with toxic or undesirable side effects can be used,if means are available to deliver the compound to the affected tissue,while minimizing damage to unaffected tissue.

In formulating a dosage range for use in humans, the effective dose of atherapeutic agent can be estimated from in vitro cell studies and invivo studies with animal models. If an effective dose is determined forameliorating a symptom in cell culture, a dose can be formulated in ananimal in order to achieve a circulating plasma concentration of sodiumbutyrate that falls in this range. An exemplary dose produces a plasmaconcentration that exceeds the IC₅₀ (i.e., the concentration of the testcompound which achieves a half-maximal inhibition of symptoms) asdetermined in cell culture assays. The circulating plasma concentrationcan be determined, for example, by administering a labeled therapeuticcomposition to the test animal, obtaining a blood sample, andquantitating the amount of labeled compound present at various timesafter administration.

An appropriate daily dose of a therapeutic agent can be between about0.1 mg/kg of body weight to about 500 mg/kg, or between about 1 mg/kg toabout 100 mg/kg. The dose can be adjusted in accordance with theblood-brain barrier permeability of the compound. For example, atherapeutic compound can be administered at a dosage of 50 mg/kg to 100mg/kg in order to treat the brain. The dose for a patient can beoptimized while the patient is under care of a physician, pharmacist, orresearcher. For example, a relatively low dose of a tri-domaintherapeutic can be administered initially. The patient can be monitoredfor symptoms of the disorder being treated (e.g., HD). The dose can beincreased until an appropriate response is obtained. In addition, thespecific dose level for any particular subject can vary depending on theage, body weight, general health, gender, and diet of the subject, thetime of administration, the route of administration, the rate ofexcretion, and other drugs provided in combination.

As occurs in the course of all drug development, optimal treatmentregimes will emerge through further modeling and clinical trials. It maybe, for example, that a patient will receive a combination of compoundsthat act synergistically to inhibit polypeptide association by the sameor different mechanisms of action. Combination therapies may also relyon administration of a compound that interferes with gene transcription(e.g., a small molecule or a nucleic acid that mediates RNAi) and acompound that facilitates degradation of any remaining unwantedpolypeptide-containing complexes.

The efficacy of a dose of any therapeutic agent can be determined in asubject. For example, the subject can be monitored for clinicalsymptoms, for example, a symptom of a trinucleotide repeat disease, suchas a symptom of HD. Behavioral symptoms of HD include irritability,apathy, lethargy, depression, hostile outbursts, loss of memory and/orjudgment, loss of ability to concentrate, anxiety, slurred speech,difficulty swallowing and/or eating, and inability to recognize persons.Clinical symptoms of HD include loss of coordination, loss of balance,inability to walk, uncontrolled movements of the fingers, feet, face,and/or trunk, rapid twitching, tremors, chorea, rigidity, and akinesia(severe rigidity).

Methods of Making:

The compounds of the invention or biologically active variants thereof(e.g., salts) may be synthesized in vitro, produced in vivo (e.g.,produced within the body (e.g., intracellularly) followingadministration to a patient), or produced following application to acell in culture. Accordingly, the present invention features methods ofmaking the compounds and compositions of the present invention. Thecompounds can be synthesized using routine techniques known to one ofordinary skill in the art. For example, the compounds can be made byproviding a starting compound or intermediate and reacting the compoundor intermediate with one or more chemical reagents in one or more stepsto produce a compound described herein (e.g., a compound of any ofFormulas I-IV or V(a)-V(u)).

Some of the compounds described herein can be obtained from commercialsources. As noted, others can be synthesized by conventional methodsusing commercially available starting materials and reagents. Thecompounds described herein can be separated from a reaction mixture andfurther purified by a method such as column chromatography,high-pressure liquid chromatography, or recrystallization. As can beappreciated by one of ordinary skill in the art, further methods ofsynthesizing the compounds of the formulae herein are available.Additionally, the various synthetic steps may be performed in analternate sequence or order to give the desired compounds. Syntheticchemistry transformations and protecting group methodologies (protectionand deprotection) useful in synthesizing the compounds described hereinare known in the art and include, for example, those such as describedin R. Larock, Comprehensive Organic Transformations, VCH Publishers(1989); T. W. Greene and P. G. M. Wuts, Protective Groups in OrganicSynthesis, 2d. Ed., John Wiley and Sons (1991); L. Fieser and M. Fieser,Fieser and Fieser's Reagents for Organic Synthesis, John Wiley and Sons(1994); and L. Paquette, ed., Encyclopedia of Reagents for OrganicSynthesis, John Wiley and Sons (1995), and subsequent editions thereof.Techniques useful for the separation of isomers, for example,stereoisomers are within skill of the art and are described in Eliel, E.L.; Wilen, S. H.; Mander, L. N. Stereochemistry of Organic Compounds,Wiley Interscience, NY, 1994. For example compounds can be resolved viaformation of diasteromeric salts, for example, with a chiral base, forexample, (+) or (−) a-methylbenzylamine, or via high performance liquidchromatography using a chiral column.

Platform and Scaffold Use:

In an alternate embodiment, the compounds described herein may be usedas platforms or scaffolds that may be utilized in combinatorialchemistry techniques for preparation of derivatives and/or chemicallibraries of compounds. Such derivatives and libraries of compounds havebiological activity and are useful for identifying and designingcompounds possessing a particular activity. Combinatorial techniquessuitable for utilizing the compounds described herein are known in theart as exemplified by Obrecht, D. and Villalgrodo, J. M.,“Solid-Supported Combinatorial and Parallel Synthesis ofSmall-Molecular-Weight Compound Libraries”, Pergamon-Elsevier ScienceLimited (1998), and include those such as the “split and pool” or“parallel” synthesis techniques, solid-phase and solution-phasetechniques, and encoding techniques (see, for example, Czarnik, Curr.Opin. Chem. Bio. 1:60, 1997). Thus, one embodiment relates to methods ofusing the compounds described herein for generating derivatives orchemical libraries. The methods can be carried out by performing these,and optionally additional, steps: (1) providing a body comprising aplurality of wells; (2) providing one or more compounds identified bymethods described herein in each well (e.g., any of the compounds ofFormulas I-IV or V(a)-V(u); (3) providing an additional one or morechemicals in each well, where the compound, upon exposure to thechemical(s) may produce one or more products; and (4) isolating theresulting one or more products from each well. We may refer to theoriginal compound as the “first” compound and to the chemical as the“second” compound. The order in which the first and second compounds areadded to the wells can vary, and the methods can be carried out in vitroor in cell culture. Lead derivatives can be further tested in animalmodels.

In alternate embodiments, the methods of using the compounds describedherein for generating derivatives or chemical libraries can be carriedout using a solid support. These methods can be carried out by, forexample: (1) providing one or more of the compounds described hereinattached to a solid support; (2) treating the one or more compoundsidentified by methods described herein attached to a solid support withone or more additional compounds or chemicals; (3) isolating theresulting one or more products from the solid support. In these methods,“tags” or identifier or labeling moieties may be attached to and/ordetached from the compounds described herein or their derivatives, tofacilitate tracking, identification or isolation of the desired productsor their intermediates. Such moieties are known in the art and exemplarytags are noted above. The chemicals (or “second” compound(s)) used inthe aforementioned methods may include, for example, solvents, reagents,catalysts, protecting group and deprotecting group reagents, and thelike. Examples of such chemicals are those that appear in the varioussynthetic and protecting group chemistry texts and treatises which areknown in the art and may be referenced herein.

Databases:

In one aspect, the invention includes cell-based and in vitro assays(e.g., high throughput screens) that can be used with essentially anycompound collection. Following an assay, the result can be recorded in adatabase, and such databases are also within the scope of the presentinvention. For example, the invention features a computer-readabledatabase that includes a plurality of records. Each record includes (a)a first field that includes information reflecting the identity of anagent (e.g., an agent within one of the types of libraries describedherein) and (b) a second field that includes information concerning theimpact of the agent on polypeptide association. Additional fields mayinclude the results of toxicity tests, dose-response tests, and thelike. The information contained with the fields can be obtained in anyorder (e.g., the information reflecting protein association can beobtained first). However, to help ensure the integrity of the database,the information should be obtained independently (or “blindly”). Thedatabase can also include a field comparing the agent to a clinicaloutcome (e.g., an improvement in a sign or symptom associated withParkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, cancer, or any of the otherdisorders described herein). The number of records can be, but is notnecessarily, great. For example, a useful database can include at least10, 25, 50, 100, 250, 500, 1000, 1500, 1800, 2000, or 2500 records.

The invention is further illustrated by the following examples, whichshould not be construed as further limiting.

EXAMPLES Example 1 Effect of Expanded Polyglutamine (polyQ) on CellGrowth and Protein Aggregation

We expressed sequences encoding fragments of the huntingtin gene havingeither an expanded region of glutamine residues (104Q) or a normallength (25Q) in the yeast S. cerevisiae. We fused the genes for 104Q and25Q to the DNA sequence encoding green fluorescent protein to allowmicroscopic detection of the corresponding polypeptide in vivo. Bothgenes also contained a short sequence corresponding to the FLAG-tag atthe N-terminus. We expressed the 104Q and 25Q transgenes in yeast underthe regulation of a Gall promoter. Upon transfer of the cells to agalactose-containing medium, 104Q formed multiple aggregates (10-20 percell) in the cytoplasm within 4-6 hours, while 25Q was soluble. While25Q-GFP had no effect on the growth rate of the cells, 104Q expressioncaused a general cessation of growth. With time, expression of 104Qstrongly declined and yeast growth was partially restored, but at a verylow rate. The presence of FLAG-tag in the 104Q sequence may be criticalfor growth cessation.

Example 2 A Screen for Genes that Modulate the Toxicity ofpolyQ-Containing Polypeptides and Formation of Inclusion Bodies

We performed a screen for yeast genes involved in polyQ aggregation byidentifying suppressors of the polyQ-dependent growth defect. A numberof mutant clones expressing 104Q formed large colonies (i.e., clones inwhich the growth defect was suppressed) and were selected for furtheranalysis. In some of these colonies, aggregation of 104Q was stronglyinhibited, while in others, aggregation was normal. Three clones thatdemonstrated suppressed aggregation were analyzed. About 85% of thecells in these clones did not have inclusion bodies at all, while about15% of the cells had one large aggregate. Notably, expression levels of104Q in these mutants were much higher than in the parental wild type,and reached the levels of expression of 25Q. Increased expression of104Q in the mutants closely correlated with increased fluorescence. Weidentified mutations in these clones by complementation analysis, whichshowed the mutations to be in the HSP 104 gene. Precise deletion of thegene hsp104 led to suppression of the growth defect caused by 104Q,prevented aggregation of this polypeptide, and allowed its highexpression. Mutations in ssa1, ssa2, and ydj1 genes also affected 104Qaggregation but caused very different phenotypes. Many more inclusionbodies were formed in these mutants, but they were much smaller than inthe wild type, and the fraction of 104Q in these inclusion bodies wasvery low. Similar to the hsp104 mutation, ssa1, ssa2, and ydj1 mutationscause a reduced formation of inclusion bodies and also suppressed thegrowth defect caused by the extended polyQ domain. Based on these data,we established a simple screen to identify mammalian genes that inhibitformation of aggregates when overexpressed. An expression library ofmammalian genes from HeLa cells was transfected into 104Q-GFP-expressingyeast cells and large clones (i.e., those in which growth defect wassuppressed), were selected. Out of about 30,000 colonies screened, 21colonies demonstrated suppression of the growth defect. Many of theplasmids were found to be “false positives” since they were unable tosuppress the growth defect after isolation and re-transforming into adifferent 104Q-expressing clone. Two plasmids (each present in severalselected clones) encoding mammalian genes partially suppressed 104Qaggregation. These plasmids caused phenotypes similar to those of cellscarrying mutations in the Hsp70 or DnaJ genes. Sequencing of these genesrevealed that one encoded the chaperonin TCP1α, and another encoded anunknown ORF. This genetic approach can provide insight to the mechanismsdriving formation of inclusion bodies, and can identify potentialtargets for design of drugs that affect aggregation of proteins, such asthe polyQ-containing proteins described above.

Example 3 Screening of Chemical Compound Libraries

We designed a screen for chemical compounds that can affect proteinaggregation. The screen was designed based on the phenotypicaldifferences between cells expressing 104Q and 25Q. The phenotypesincluded difference in growth rate and in fluorescence levels. We usedmicrotiter plates to screen chemical libraries by the described method.We grew yeast transformed with either the 104Q-, or the 25Q-encodingplasmids separately in liquid medium in the presence of glucose, whichinhibits polyQ expression. In the mid-log phase of growth, we washed thecells to remove glucose and resuspended them in a medium containinggalactose, which induces polyQ expression. We placed the cellsuspensions in 96- or 348-well plates and incubated them with aerationat 30° C. for 20 hours. We then measured cell density and fluorescenceusing a plate reader. Very little increase in the culture density andfluorescence was seen with cells expressing 104Q, but both parametersincreased strongly for cells expressing 25Q. In general, anapproximately 3-5 fold difference in cell number, and an approximately20-30 fold difference in fluorescence was observed in 104Q and 25Qcultures. Compounds from a chemical library were added to 104Q cultureright after plating into the microtiter plates. Compounds that enhancedcell growth or fluorescence were selected. These compounds were thentested for the ability to reduce aggregation of 104Q. Thirteen compoundswere found to either enhance growth or reduce aggregation of cellsexpressing 104Q, or cause both effects. These compounds were then testedfor the ability to reduce aggregation of 104Q in cells of theneuron-derived PC12 cell line. The compounds identified by this methodare leads for development of drugs for treatment of diseases related toexpansion of polyQ.

Example 4 Screening Method for Using an Epitope Tagged polyQ Peptide ina Screen for Compounds that Inhibit Protein Aggregation

An epitope-tagged polyQ peptide can be used to screen for, and therebyidentify, compounds that modulate (e g, inhibit) protein aggregation oranother type of association between proteins. For example, cells can beplated on UV-treated coverslips in a 2 cm 6-well plate and incubatedovernight in 2 ml 10% serum containing DME media. The next day, thecells are transiently transfected with 1-2 μg of DNA plasmid encoding amyc-tagged polyQ polypeptide using the lipofection reagent, Transfectam®(Promega, Madison, Wis.), following the Promega standard protocol. After48 hours, the cells are washed twice in PBS, fixed in 2% formaldehydefor 10 minutes, treated for five minutes with 0.1% Triton-X (topermeabilize the cells), then incubated in a humidified chamber with PBSwith 10% goat serum and 0.2% Tween-20. Following incubation, the cellscan be visualized with an anti-myc fluorescent antibody (Cy3, rhodamineand FITC are commonly used fluorophores, FLAG, myc and HA are commonepitope tags); and analyzed for inhibition of aggregation using highmagnification fluorescent microscopy. The examination, whether the assayis configured as described here or as described elsewhere herein, can becarried out by eye or automated. For example, a microscope stage can beautomatically moved (by, for example, a robotic device) so that eachwell appears beneath the lens and is photographed. A computer attachedto the microscope can receive and analyze the data.

Example 5 Screen to Identify Transcriptional Repressors and Activators,and Compounds Facilitating Degradation of Extended polyQ

High sensitivity of R^(2/6) cell lines to chemical treatment was used asa basis for a high-throughput screen of 30,000 compounds. The purpose ofthe screen was to identify transcriptional repressors, such as cystamineand C9 (A33 in Table 1), transcriptional activators, and compoundsfacilitating degradation of extended polyQ.

The compound C9 (aka C4-DAK) down-regulated expression of a mutantHuntingtin transgene (htt) in ecdyson-based inducible PC12 cells anddown-regulated expression of htt and SOD1 transgenes (implicated in ALS)in transiently transfected HeLa cells. The compound C9 (A33 in Table 1)has structural similarity to the histone deacetylase (HDAc) inhibitor,scriptaid(6-(1,3-Dioxo-1H,3H-benzo[de]isoquinolin-2-yl)-N-hydroxyhexanamide) (Suet al., Cancer Res. 60:3137, 2000; A5 in Table 1). We observed the mostdramatic effect on expression level by C9 and scriptaid in the PC12 cellline 14A2/6 expressing the extended polyQ mutant htt(104Q). The effectof C9 on the down-regulation of polyQ expression, was similar tocystamine, a drug that has shown efficacy in a mouse model forHuntington's Disease (HD). Cystamine blocked protein aggregation andprolonged the survival of R^(2/6) HD mice by an unknown mechanism. BothC9 and cystamine reversed the stimulatory effect of the HDAc inhibitor,scriptaid, on expression and aggregation in PC12 cells. 14A2/6 cellswere at least 5-fold more responsive to chemical treatment than othercell lines tested. 2.5 μM of Scriptaid in a media caused dramaticoverexpression of a transgene, aggregation in 100% of the cells, andcell death of 14A2/6 cells. In other cell lines, the same concentrationof Scriptaid only modestly stimulated the expression of the transgene.Both cystamine and C9 rescued PC12 cells from scriptaid-dependentsynthetic lethality, whereas the other blockers of aggregation failed toreverse the effect of scriptaid on transgene expression or PC12 celldeath.

Example 6 A Screen for Small Molecule Inhibitors of Protein Aggregation

In the study that follows, we identified and characterized smallchemical molecules that inhibit protein association by screening alibrary of 16,000 such molecules. We used a yeast-based assay foraggregation, and selected nine structurally diverse inhibitors. We foundthat four of these molecules suppressed protein association well inmammalian cells in vivo but not in vitro. This suggests that themolecules either depend on metabolic conversion to become inhibitors orinhibit aggregation indirectly, targeting cellular pathway(s) of proteinaggregation that are active in whole animals. In view of these fourcompounds, we synthesized more than 100 structural analogs and testedthem in cell culture to select the compounds most effective ininhibiting aggregation. We studied the effects of the most potentcompounds on polyQ aggregation in neurons in brain slices isolated fromHD transgenic mice and maintained in vitro.

For our high throughput screen, we developed a novel yeast model ofpolyglutamine aggregation using an amino-terminal fragment of mutant HDprotein (Htt) containing extended polyglutamines (103Q). This mutantefficiently aggregates in cells and causes cytotoxicity.

For the compound screen, we engineered the Erg6 yeast strain to expressthe “103Q” polypeptide tagged with EGFP under the control of a GAL1promoter. This strain, engineered as described here, is within the scopeof the present invention. The erg6 mutation inhibits ergosterolbiosynthesis, which enhances membrane fluidity and results in increasedmembrane permeability to a variety of chemical compounds. The yeastculture was grown to mid-logarithmic phase, shifted to galactose mediumto induce 103Q expression, placed in 96-well plates, and supplementedwith compounds. We used the optical density at 600 nm to monitor yeastgrowth and fluorescence in FITC channel to monitor expression levels of103Q-GFP fusion polypeptides. From the screened compounds, we selectedchemical compounds that caused an increase in growth and/or an increasein fluorescence. The ability of pre-selected compounds to suppress 103Qaggregation was examined microscopically, and we identified nineinhibitors of aggregation from the library screened (from Diverse Setcollection, ChemBridge Corp., San Diego, Calif.).

To study the inhibitors we identified using the yeast screen inmammalian cells, we employed ecdyson-inducible rat phaeochromocytoma(PC12) cells. Compounds were tested in two clones, 14A2/5 and 14A2/6,with highest aggregation rate. We incubated undifferentiated PC12 cellswith muristerone A to induce 103Q expression, and we exposed the cellsto compounds at concentrations ranging from 1 to 10 μM. Four compounds,including C1 (A16 in Table 1), C2 (B1 in Table 2), C3 (M14 in Table 5),and C4 (A2 in Table 1), showed significant inhibitory effects onaggregation of 103Q in the two PC12 clones tested. Under the testconditions, the IC₅₀ for compound C1 was 10 μM; for compounds C2 and C3,it was 5 μM; and for compound C4 it was 2.5 μM. All compounds werenon-toxic except C2, which was toxic at concentrations higher than 5 μM.

The inhibitory activity we observed with C1-C4 in the PC12 cell modeldescribed above was confirmed in Cos1 cells transiently transfected witha CMV promoter-based DNA construct that encodes an Htt exon I fragmentof Huntington's disease protein (Htt)) having 51 consecutive glutamineresidues (HD Q51). When expressed in Cos1 cells, HD 51Q polypeptidesreadily form aggregates. Transfected Cos1 cells were incubated withC1-C4 compounds in culture medium and lysed. The lysates were thenheat-denatured in SDS and passed through a cellulose acetate membrane,which captures aggregated, but not soluble polypeptides. Polyglutamineaggregates trapped on membranes were detected by immunostaining withantibody specific to extended polyQ. Pre-incubation of cells withcompounds C1, C3, and C4 decreased the amount of retained polyQ,indicating inhibitory effects on polyQ aggregation. The IC₅₀ forcompound C1 was 10 μM and the IC₅₀ for compounds C3 and C4 was 5 μM. AsC2 was toxic for Cos1 cells, its effect on aggregation was notdetermined.

The protein levels of Htt fragments containing 103Q in PC12 cells werenot affected by incubation with compounds at the concentrations tested.Furthermore, proteolytic capacity of cells treated with compound C2appeared to be normal, since levels of a highly unstable endogenous p53protein in PC12 cells were not changed. Together, these data suggestthat inhibition of aggregate formation by C2 was not related to generalinhibition of cell viability, general cessation of metabolism or anincrease in the cells' general capacity to degrade or refold abnormalproteins.

To determine whether C2 could directly interfere with polyQ aggregation,we reproduced this process in vitro and assayed the inhibitory effectsof the compounds in a cell-free trap assay. Recombinant HD Q51polypeptide, purified from bacteria, was incubated in the presence or inthe absence of C2 for a time sufficient to allow aggregation. Then, uponheat-denaturation in SDS buffer, samples were filtered through acellulose acetate membrane. Harsh denaturation conditions separatedunaggregated soluble peptides, which passed through the membrane, andinsoluble aggregates, which were retained on the membrane. The polyQaggregates trapped on the membrane were subsequently immunostained andquantified. The compound failed to block aggregation of purepolyglutamines in vitro even at high concentrations (up to 100 mM).These data suggest that the molecular targets of these compounds werenot soluble or aggregated polyQ.

Suppression of aggregation of 103Q could be related to potentialinduction of heat shock proteins that facilitate folding and degradationof abnormal polypeptides. However, the compounds failed to affectexpression of the major inducible heat shock protein, Hsp72, indicatingthat expression of Hsps is not regulated by the tested compounds in PC12cells.

To devise more potent inhibitors of polyQ aggregation, we assembled afocus library consisting of chemical compounds having more than 70%structural similarity to C1-C4. We tested these analogs atconcentrations ranging from 0.025 μM to 5.0 μM for their effects onpolyQ aggregation in PC12 cells. Among 24 analogs of C1; 28 analogs ofC2; 24 analogs of C3, and 53 analogs of C4, we identified several potentinhibitors of polyQ aggregation. From our C2 focus library, we isolatedcompound C2-8 (B2 in Table 2), which inhibits polyQ aggregation with anIC₅₀ value 50 nM. We also identified C2-10 (B6 in Table 2) and C2-11(M16 (formula V(n)) in Table 5), and B7, B8 and B9 in Table 2. From ourC3 focus library, we isolated compound C3-5 (M22 (formula V(t)) in Table5) (having an IC₅₀ value of 100 nM) and compound C3-6 (M17 (formulaV(o)) in Table 5) (having an IC₅₀ value of 5 μM). From our C4 library,we isolated compound C4-7 (A31 in Table 1), which has an IC₅₀ value 100nM. We also identified C4-34 (A3 in Table 1).

The compounds demonstrated no effects on expression levels of 103Qpolypeptides and no toxicity at the concentrations used to inhibitaggregation. In the C1 library, no inhibitors of polyQ aggregation withhigh potency were found. The original “hit” compounds C1-C4 and theirstructural analogs displayed specificity in inhibiting aggregation.Although these compounds were potent inhibitors of polyQ aggregation,they failed to inhibit alpha-synuclein aggregation in preliminary testsin a cellular model of Parkinson's disease.

The effects of the selected compounds on polyQ aggregation in neuronaltissues were assessed in brain slice cultures from the transgenic mouseR6/2 model of HD. R6/2 mice ubiquitously express human Huntingtin exon Icontaining 150Q (HD Q150), which causes neuropathology resembling keyneurological changes in HD patients. Formation of neuronal polyQaggregates precedes pathological behavioural changes in R6/2 mice. Anorganotypic slice culture assay has been developed in order to establishan ex vivo system that closely models the process of aggregationoccurring in R6/2 mouse brains. The early appearance of polyQ aggregatesin the R6/2 mouse hippocampus makes it an ideal model to testaggregation inhibitors in an ex vivo system: aggregates appear inneurons in the slice cultures at the same time they appear in neurons inintact brains of transgenic mice. The potency of any aggregate inhibitorcan be assessed directly in neurons in brain slices (thus bypassing theblood brain barrier, the major obstacle to test compounds in neuronaltissues).

Aggregation in brain slice cultures was assessed during four weeks usingthree parameters: (1) the number of aggregates per square millimeter,(2) the density of individual aggregates, and (3) the size of theaggregates. These parameters can be assessed in any of the assaysdescribed herein. Brain slices maintained in culture for 2, 3 or 4 weekswere fixed and immunostained using an anti-Htt-antibody. Fluorescentimages of aggregates were captured as Z stacks using a ConfocalMicroscope, capturing aggregates throughout the entire thickness of theslice. To obtain statistically significant data, 20 sections for eachsample were quantified with a macro computer program (Paul Wetton atImage Associates, UK), which measured aggregate count, aggregate densityand aggregate size.

The test compounds were added to the slice cultures from Day 1 inregular media, which were changed twice a week. The four hit-compounds,C1-C4, were tested at concentrations of 0.1 mM, 1 mM, 10 mM and 100 mM.The five structural analogues, C5-C9 (C5 is in M15 in Table 5; C6 is M14in Table 5; C7 is A2 in Table 1; C8 is B2 in Table 2; C9 is A33 in Table1), were tested at concentrations 0.001 mM, 0.01 mM, 0.1 mM, 1 mM and 10mM.

The inhibitory effects on aggregation of primary hit-compounds wererestricted to 2-3 weeks in brain slice culture at 0.1-10 μMconcentrations. At higher concentrations of 10-100 μM, these compoundswere toxic for neurons.

To date, the most successful inhibitor identified by this screen wasC2-8 (B2 in Table 2). At the 3-week time point, aggregates intensity andarea was inhibited only by the highest tested concentration of 10 mM.After 4 weeks of incubation with C2-8, inhibition occurred atconcentrations ranging from 0.1-10 mM for every parameter assayed, but10 mM showed the strongest effect.

Compound C2-8 was also tested in a cell-free trap assay of purifiedpolyQ, and showed inhibitory effects on aggregation, albeit at very highconcentrations (IC₅₀ 25 μM). Congo Red, which is structurally unrelatedto C2-8, was used as a control. Our data suggested that either C2-8 ismetabolically converted by cells into a highly potent inhibitor or thatit affected cellular factors involved in regulation of proteinaggregation.

Example 7 Naphthylamine Scaffold Compounds

Previous studies for drugs to treat HD identified naphthylamine scaffoldcompounds. Compounds from this chemical class were identified asinhibitors of polyglutamine aggregation and transcriptional regulators.The compounds include HDAc inhibitors such as scriptaid, DAc inhibitors,DNA intercalation agents, inhibitors of topoisomerase II, and theanticancer drugs amonofide and mitonafide.

A variety of animal models of Huntington disease have been developed.Examination of the degeneration of photoreceptor neurons facilitated byextended polyQ expression is one such model (Jackson et al., Neuron21:633-642, 1998).

We used the photoreceptor model in Drosophila to test a variety ofdifferent compounds, including naphthylamine derivatives, for an effecton neurodegeneration. One naphthylamine analog, C9-2 (A8 in Table 1),showed dramatic neuroprotection. C9-2 is2-(3-methoxypropyl)-1H-benzo[de]isoquinoline-1,3(2H)-dione.

Biochemical activity associated with C9-2 is not well understood. Thecompound is structurally similar to scriptaid, but unlike scriptaid,C9-2 does not appear to inhibit HDAc activity. Further, notranscriptional activation or repression was observed when C9-2 wastested in the striatum of 11Q/111Q cells and PC12 cells, nor has DNAbinding activity been detected. C9-2 also does not appear to suppressaggregation of polyQ-containing polypeptides. Future studies includetesting the compound for anti-apoptotic activity, and transcriptionalprofiling using a striatum cell line derived from a double knock-outmutant htt mouse. The C9-2 analogs C9-2B (A30 in Table 1) and C9-2A(control) (A29 in Table 1) are being tested for an effect onphotoreceptor neurodegeneration in the Drosophila HD model.

Example 8

Transcriptional dysregulation. Transcriptional dysregulation is ahallmark of HD. Regulators of global transcription, including HDAcinhibitors, have been shown to ameliorate disease pathology. We foundthat the compound C9 could repress transcription in PC12 cellsexpressing a polypeptide with an extended polyQ (103Q) N-terminalfragment. Expression of the polypeptide was under control of aninducible ecdysone receptor (EcR)-based promoter.

We then tested C9 in chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assays. Suchassays are useful for measuring binding of transcriptional factors andhistones to DNA. It was previously demonstrated that cells derived fromstriatum of double knock-in mutant (111Q) full-length htt mice aredeficient in binding of the transcription factor SP1 to dopaminereceptor (D2) DNA. The compound C9 was found to restore binding of SP1and increase binding of histones (and acetylated histones in particular)to D2 DNA. The compound also demonstrated unspecific toxicity to cellsat concentrations higher than 10 μM.

C9 was tested in the HD Drosophila model and showed modest rescue ofneurodegeneration of photoreceptor neurons.

Mouse trials were also conducted with C9, and while the compound wasfound to be bioavailable, an effect was not observed, presumably due tolow potency of the compound. Scriptaid was toxic to flies.

We conducted structure activity relationship (SAR) studies to optimizetranscription activation. We developed a novel transcription-based assayfor this purpose. A luciferase reporter gene was stably integrated into111Q/111Q striatum double knock-in cells and constitutively expressedunder control of a promoter containing six copies of the SP1transcription factor binding motif (6XSP1). In this system, C9 wasdetermined to have an EC₂₀₀ of 7.5 μM. This result is similar to thetranscription activation efficacy observed for scriptaid. C9 was alsofound to activate transcription in the neuronal cell line H4.

A series of C9 derivatives were designed, synthesized, and tested in theChIP and transcription-based assays described above. The analog C91 (A9in Table 1) was more potent (4 μM) than C9, and exhibited a similarresult in ChIP experiments. C9-2 and C9-3 (A7 in Table 1) did noteffectively activate transcription. Compound C9-1B (A14 in Table 1) waseven more potent than C9 and C91, with an EC₂₀₀ of 50 nM. This compoundalso demonstrated some weak nonspecific toxicity in the range of1.25-5.0 μM. The compounds tested generally demonstrated the bestresponse 72 hours after exposing the cells to the chemicals. This resultcontrasts with that of the HDAc inhibitors which demonstrate a peaktranscriptional response in the transcription assay at 24 hoursfollowing exposure of cells to compounds. The delay in the response inthe C9 compounds suggests that the mechanism of transcriptionalactivation is different than that of the HDAc inhibitors. The delayedresponse also indicates that the compounds are generally stable in thecellular environment.

In the course of the SAR study, we also identified structures that hadpreviously been developed as cancer drugs, such as the naphthalimides,mitonafide and amonafide (C91CN and C91C, respectively). These compoundsare known to be DNA intercalators with antitumor activity. Testing ofthe DNA-binding activity of the C9 compounds revealed no correlationbetween constant DNA binding and transcriptional response. This is incontrast to the effect of mithramycin which binds DNA and was shown tobe highly efficacious in a mouse HD model (Ferrante et al., Soc NeurosciAbstr 28: 725, 2002b). Mithramycin potently activated transcription inour assay. Similar to many anti-tumor compounds, mithramycin is toxic tocells. The C9 series lead compounds, however, do not show a similartoxicity.

Compounds of the C9 series did not directly inhibit HDAc activity, butC9-4 (A19 in Table 1) demonstrated indirect HDAc inhibitory activity athigh concentrations, targeting down-regulation of HDAc 5 specifically.Thus, the C9 compounds may modulate transcriptional activity by anindirect effect on the HDAc pathway.

C9-1B and C9-6B (C9-1B is A14 in Table 1; C9-6B is A23 in Table 1) willbe tested in a mouse model of HD.

A series of rationally-designed scaffold-type compounds, called the CGseries of compounds, was tested in the transcription assay describedabove. CG4 (A27 in Table 1) was the most potent transcriptionalactivator, but was less potent than C9-4.

Example 9 Screening of Chemical Compound Libraries

A PC12 cell line was engineered to express extended polyQ under thecontrol of an ecdysone-inducible promoter. In the assay cell line, anN-terminal fragment of htt containing an extended polyQ tract was stablyexpressed as a fusion with EGFP (htt103Q-EGFP), from the pIND vector.Expression of extended polyQ in these cells was controlled by additionof an ecdysone analog, in this case muristerone A. In this assay, EGFPfluorescence directly correlated with htt103Q-EGFP expression levels.This system was designed to assess the effects of specific compounds onoverall levels of extended polyglutamines in cells, using a simplefluorescent-based read-out.

Using this assay, several compounds were identified as facilitators ofprotein aggregation. These compounds are D1, D2, and D3, shown in Table4. PC12 cells expressing the extended polyQ polypeptide exhibitedproteasomal dysfunction, and compounds D1 and D2 relieved thisphenotype. The compound D4 was found to inhibit protein aggregation.

OTHER EMBODIMENTS

A number of embodiments of the invention have been described.Nevertheless, it will be understood that various modifications may bemade without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention.Accordingly, other embodiments are within the scope of the followingclaims.

1. A pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound of Formula II:

wherein, Z is O or S; Y is O, NR²⁵ or CR²⁶R²⁷; each R²¹ and R²² is,independently, halo, hydroxy, nitro, cyano, amino, amido, or alkyl; R²³is alkyl, cyclyl, aryl, heteroaryl, cyclylalkyl, arylalkyl, orheteroarylalkyl, or when taken together with R²⁴ and the nitrogen towhich it is attached forms a ring; wherein R²³ is optionally substitutedwith 1-3 R²⁸. R²⁴ is H, alkyl, or when taken together with R²³ and thenitrogen to which it is attached forms a ring; wherein R²⁴ is optionallysubstituted with 1-3 R²⁸. R²⁵ is H or alkyl; each R²⁶ and R²⁷ isindependently H or alkyl; each R²⁸ is independently halo, hydroxy,nitro, cyano, amino, amido, or alkyl; each p and q are independently aninteger from 0-4.
 2. The composition of claim 1, wherein Z is O.
 3. Thecomposition of claim 1, wherein Y is NR²⁵.
 4. The composition of claim1, wherein R²⁵ is H.
 5. The composition of claim 1, wherein Y isCR²⁶R²⁷.
 6. The composition of claim 1, wherein each R²¹ and R²² isindependently halo or hydroxy. 7-9. (canceled)
 10. The composition ofclaim 1, wherein R²² is halo; and q is
 1. 11. The composition of claim10, wherein p is
 0. 12. The composition of claim 10, wherein R²² isbromo. 13-24. (canceled)
 25. A pharmaceutical composition comprising:4-Bromo-N-(4-bromo-phenyl)-3-cyclohexylsulfamoyl-benzamide;N-(4-Bromo-phenyl)-3-(4-bromo-phenylsulfamoyl)-benzamide;3-(4-Bromo-phenylsulfamoyl)-N-phenyl-benzamide;4-Bromo-3-cyclohexylsulfamoyl-N-phenyl-benzamide;N-(4-Bromo-phenyl)-3-cyclohexylsulfamoyl-benzamide; or1-[3-(Azepane-1-sulfonyl)-2-bromo-phenyl]-2-(3-hydroxy-phenyl)-ethanone.26-28. (canceled)
 29. A method of treating a subject who has beendiagnosed as having, or who is at risk of developing, a disordercharacterized by an undesirable association of proteins, the methodcomprising identifying the subject and administering to the subject atherapeutically effective amount of the pharmaceutical composition ofclaim
 1. 30. The method of claim 29, wherein the subject has beendiagnosed as having, or is at risk of developing, Huntington's disease.31. The method of claim 29, wherein the subject has been diagnosed ashaving, or is at risk of developing, Parkinson's disease.
 32. The methodof claim 29, wherein the subject has been diagnosed as having, or is atrisk of developing, spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy,dentatorubral-pallidoluysian atrophy, spinocerebellar ataxia type 1(SCA1), SCA2, SCA6, SCAT, Machado-Joseph disease (MJD/SCA3), breastcancer, amyloidosis, myeloma, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, kuru, cysticfibrosis, neuroblastoma, carcinoma, or alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiencydisease.
 33. A pharmaceutical composition comprising: (a) a compoundFormula I:

X is C(O) or a bond; each R¹¹ and R¹² is, independently, halo, nitro,amino, hydroxy, alkoxy, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cyclyl, heterocyclyl,aryl, arylalkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, NR¹⁵C(O)R¹⁴, orC(O)NR¹⁵R¹⁶, each of which is optionally substituted with 1-4 R¹⁷; R¹³is H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amino, hydroxy, aryl, arylalkyl,arylamino, heterocyclyl, heterocyclylalkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl,cyclyl, cyclylalkyl, aminoalkyl, hydroxyalkyl, or alkoxyalkyl, each ofwhich is optionally substituted with 1-4 R¹⁸; R¹⁴ is H, alkyl, alkenyl,alkynyl, cyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, or heteroaryl; each of R¹⁵ and R¹⁶is, independently, H, hydroxy, alkoxy, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cyclyl,heterocyclyl, aryl, arylalkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; each R¹⁷is, independently, halo, alkyl, alkoxy, or hydroxy; each R¹⁸ is,independently, halo, alkyl, amino, hydroxy, C(O)NR¹⁵R¹⁶, NR¹⁵C(O)R¹⁴, orhydroxyalkyl; and m and n are each, independently, an integer from 0 to3; (b) a compound of Formula III:

A is N or CR³²; B is N or CH; R³¹ is H or NR³³R³⁴, wherein R³¹ isoptionally substituted with 1-3 R³⁵; R³² is H or NR³³R³⁴, wherein R³² isoptionally substituted with 1-3 R³⁵; R³³ is H, alkyl, or taken togetherwith R³⁴ and the nitrogen to which it is attached forms a heterocyclylring; R³⁴ is H, alkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cyclylalkyl,heterocyclylalkyl or taken together with R³³ and the nitrogen to whichit is attached to form a heterocyclyl ring; each R³⁵ is, independently,halo, hydroxy, amino, nitro, alkyl, aryl, arylacyl, arylalkyl,heteroaryl, heteroarylacyl, heteroarylalkyl, cyclylacyl,heterocyclylacyl, or alkylacyl; R³⁵ is optionally substituted with 1-4R³⁶; and each R³⁶ is, independently, halo, alkyl, nitro, amino orhydroxy; or (c) a compound of Formula IV:

D is O, S, or NH; E is O or NH; R⁴¹ is halo, alkyl, amino, hydroxy, oralkoxy; R⁴² is alkyl, arylalkyl, cyclyl, or cyclylalkyl; R⁴³ is alkyl,alkenyl, alkynyl, aryl, arylalkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, cyclyl,cyclylalkyl, heterocyclyl, or heterocyclylalkyl, where R⁴³ is optionallysubstituted with 1-4 R⁴⁵; R⁴⁴ is alkyl, cyclyl, cyclylalkyl, aryl,arylalkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, heterocyclyl, orheterocyclylalkyl, where R⁴⁴ is optionally substituted with 1-4 R⁴⁶;each R⁴⁵ is independently halo, alkyl, amino, amido, hydroxy, alkoxy,nitro, cyano, thio, alkylthio, sulfonyl, or sulfonamidyl; and each R⁴⁶is independently halo, alkyl, amino, amido, hydroxy, alkoxy, nitro,cyano, thio, alkylthio, sulfonyl, or sulfonamidyl.